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TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 



EDITED BY 



A. F. NIGHTINGALE, Ph.D., LL.D. 

FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT OF HIGH SCHOOLS, CHICAGO 





EHEINSTEIN. 



I 



TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 



A HISTORY OF THE 
MIDDLE AGES 



BY 



DANA CARLETON MUNRO 

PROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



iriTH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 




NEW YORK 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

IQ02 



THF !..!?:' Ai-'-/ 0--5 

NOV, .^_^ iCfdiy 

Ont>VBIOHt ENTPV 

COPY B 






Copyright, 1903 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



PtihlifilKil Xorrmhcr. 1902 



PREFACE 



In" this text-book three subjects have been emphasized: 
first, the work of the Christian Church, the greatest of 
the civilizing agencies ; second, the debt which we owe to 
the Byzantine and Arabic civilizations ; third, the life of the 
times. While endeavoring to subordinate mere facts and 
dates, I have intended to introduce those with which a 
pupil should be familiar. 

It is impossible to name the sources to which I am in- 
debted; as I have formed my opinions gradually, during 
thirteen years in which I have been engaged in studying 
and teaching medieval history. In preparing the maps I 
have profited greatly by the admirable Oxford Historical 
Atlas of Modern Europe. Dr. A. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, 
Mr. F. L. Thompson, of New York, and Dr. Caroline Colvin, 
one of my students, have read the whole manuscript and 
made many helpful suggestions. Prof. E. H. Castle and 
Dr. A. C. Rowland, of the Teachers College, Dr. E. A. 
Singer, of Philadelphia, Prof. Wilfred H. Munro, of Brown 
University, Prof. E. P. Cheyney, and Dr. W. E. Lingelbach, 
of the University of Pennsylvania, have read one or more 
chapters. I wish to thank each one of these scholars, in- 
dividually, for the interest they have taken and the aid 



VI MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

they have given me. Prof. J. H. Robiusou, of Columbia 
University, has read all the proofs and suggested many im- 
provements. My wife has assisted me, as in all my work, 
and the text has been changed constantly to meet her help- 
ful comments. For one chapter I have been especially 
fortunate in having the criticisms of Mr. Henry C. Lea. 
It is fitting that I should mention him separately. To 
praise his scholarship would be a work of supererogation 
on my part ; but by my study in his library and observa- 
tion of his methods of working I have learned more than 
from any other source. For ten years I have profited by 
his kindness and stimulating example. 

Dana Oarleton Munro. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 



PAGE 

I. — Introduction 1 

II. — The Empire of Charles the Great .... 9 

TIL— The Church 25 

IV. — The Invasions 33 

V. — Feudalism 40 

VI.— The German Kingdom (to 1122) 51 

VII.— The Kingdom of France (to 1108) .... 64. 

VIII.— England (to 1135) 74 

IX.— The Moslem World (750-1095) ..... 86 

X.— The Byzantine Empire 95 

XL— The Crusades 106 

. XII.— The Monastic Orders 122 

XIII. — Life of the Nobles (Twelfth and Thirteenth Cen- 
turies) "I""^ 

XIV. — Life of the People (Twelfth and Thirteenth Cen- 
turies) 148 

XV. — Schools and Universities 160 

XVI. — The Church in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Cen- 
turies 169 

XVII. — Germany and Italy 184 

XVIIL— France (1108-1314) 204 

XIX.— England (1135-1327) 214 

XX.— The Other European Nations 224 

Index 235 

vii 



MAPS AND TABLES 



PAGES 

Roman Empire, 395 a. d. facing 1 

Europe, Eiglith Century 7 

Treaty of Verdun 22 

Europe, 962 A. D 53 

England, 878 a. d 77 

Byzantine Empire, 1100 A. d 99 

The Crusading Stales 112 

Monasteries in France 127 

Italy, 1160 A. D 188 

Swiss Cantons 200 

English Possessions in France 209 

Spanish Peninsula, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . . 227 

Descendants of Charles the Great 24 

Kings of Germany, 887-1125 62 

Popes, 795-1124 62, 63 

Kings of France, 843-1108 73 

Kings of the Family of Egbert 85 

Emperors of the Byzantine Empire, 717-1204 . . . 104, 105 

Kingsof Jerusalem. 1100-1187 121 

Popes, 1124-1303 180, 181 

Guelfs and Hohenstaufens 203 

ix 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Rheinstein frontispiece 

Cathedral and Baptistery, Torcello facing 4 

Facsimile of Merovingian Writing ....... 5 

Facsimile of Carolingian Writing 11 

Seal of Charles the Great 13 

Seal of Lewis the Pious 18 

Charles the Bald 21 

Old St. Peter's 36 

Bishop 29 

Boat found at Nydam in Schleswig 35 

Plaque of Gold, representing Northern Deities .... 37 

Carolingian Emperor 43 

Stone Hurler 46 

Otto the Great and his W^ife Edith 54 

German Tapestry, Tenth to Twelfth Century 58 

Part of a Charter of Hugh Capet 68 

Seal of Henry I 71 

Fibula found in Abingdon 75 

Arab Horn 88 

Arab Dagger 90 

Mosque of Cordova, Interior facing 91 

Arab Coin 92 

Greek Emperor 96 

St. Mark's, Venice facing 97 

St. Sophia, Constantinople facing 102 

Duke Robert of Normandy 109 

Coin of Bohemond 114 

xi 



Xli MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Coin of Dandolo j^g 

Costumes, Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries . . . facing 119 
Cloisters of Moissac j25 

P^'^^'i™ 128 

Letter-Carrier loo 

Plan of Castle -. og 

^h^"o'; facing 137 

Ladies' Costumes -joo 

Statue representing Lady j4q 

Knight, Thirteenth Century 142 

Group of Chessmen, Thirteenth Century I43 

Tournament . . . .^ 
145 

Plan of Manor, German village of Kerpen 150 

Arms of Paris ... i t,o 
loo 

Scene in a Shop ^^f. 

Belfry, Bordeaux _^^^.^^^ ^^^ 

Medieval Plaything .go 

Norman School . . . ^^. 

Ibl 

Seal of the University of Paris, and Reverse 165 

Seal of a Doctor, University of Paris Igg 

Thirteenth Century Chessman j-j<l 

Crozier of the Thirteenth Century 1^3 

Cathedral, Pisa ^^^.,,^ 1^4 

Church of St. Francis, Assisi facing 179 

. Statue of Frederick Barbarossa Ig-j- 

Henry the Lion and his Wife Matilda 192 

Seal of the Widow of Otto IV I94 

Seal of the City of Paris 205 

Charter of St. Louis, with Seals 207 

Cathedral, Amiens f^^^^^g 208 

St. Louis 212 

Marguerite of Provence 213 

Court of the Lions, Alhambra . . ' . . . . facing 228 

Wooden Door of Church in Iceland 230 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



CHAPTER I 

Introduction 

Isr the latter part of the fourth century a. d. the Roman 
Empire extended from the Athantic Ocean on the west to 

the Eiver Euphrates on the east. On the 
Unity of the ^^^^.^1^ -^ ^^g bounded by the Rhine and the 
Roman world, , ■■ , , i 0,1 t> • j • 

Danube ; on the south by the Sahara ; Britain 

and Egypt were the extreme outposts. Throughout this 
vast extent of territory every free man was a Roman citi- 
zen, Latin was the official language, and Christianity the 
state religion. All the government was centralized in the 
emperor, whose will was law. Moreover, the different por- 
tions of the empire were not held together by sheer brute 
force or by the presence of armies ; the people were proud 
to be Romans and despised all non-Romans. Their fore- 
fathers had been under the sway of Rome for three hun- 
dred years and had shared in the benefits of the imperial 
rule. Good roads and an excellent postal service had en- 
couraged commerce and travel. Everywhere the people 
had sought to imitate the customs and fashions of the 
capital. The whole Roman world had been unified. 

There was one Church,* of which all Christians were 

' Although Christians realized that there was but one Church, the 
word church was used in the middle ages with several different mean- 
ings, just as it is at the present day. The following definitions may be 
noted : a building set apart for Christian worship ; the group of Chris- 

1 



2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

members. Its organization was similar to that of the Eo- 
man Empire. In each city there was a bishop assisted by 
Organization of P^ests. In the chief city of each province 
the Christian there was an archbishop or metropolitan, who 
^'^'^^^ • -was the ruler of the Church in that province. 

He summoned the bishops frequently to councils in which 
were discussed matters relating to the general welfare. In 
this way the Church became centralized -and strong. Above 
the archbishops were the patriarchs, who were the bishops 
of the most important churches. Four were recognized as 
having preeminence — Jerusalem, Rome, Antioch, and Alex- 
andria. As Eome was the only patriarchate situated in the 
west, it had no rival when the western part of the empire 
became separated from the eastern. Its bishop was seldom 
called the Patriarch of Rome, but instead the term Pope 
was used. In the middle ages he was recognized as the 
supreme head of the Church to which all Christians in the 
west of Europe belonged. 

The unity of the empire, but not the unity of the 

Church, was destroyed in the fifth century by migrations. 

For five hundred years the Romans and the 

e erman Germans had been learning to know each other, 
migrations. ° 

Many of the latter had been brought into the 
empire as slaves in the days when Rome had been invin- 
cible. Later thousands had fought in the Roman armies, 
or had received permission to settle and defend the unoc- 
cupied lands along the northern boundary. In the fifth 
century whole nations invaded the western provinces, es- 
tablishing German kingdoms in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, 
and Africa. They did not come to destroy the cities or 
devastate the country, but to secure homes for themselves. 

tian believers in any locality ; the collective body of Christians in the 
whole world ; the order of the clergy, including bishops, priests, dea- 
cons, and monks; the aggregate of ecclesiastical influence and author- 
ity. It is impossible to avoid using the word with different meanings, 
but it is important to distinguish the exact meaning in each case. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

The population of the Eoman Empire had been decreasing 
for centuries, and a large part of the laud in the west was 
uncultivated. There was ample room for these newcomers, 
and in many places they established themselves as masters 
with comparatively little bloodshed. The city of Rome 
suffered most severely, but even there the churches were 
spared, for the Germans who sacked Rome had been con- 
verted to Christianity. 

The great mass of the inhabitants suffered little imme- 
diate loss from the German conquests. They lived under 
nearly the same conditions as before, but they 

The fusion of ^^^^^ ^^^ masters. The Germans were less 
the races- 
numerous than the Romans, and/never at- 
tempted to impose their own civilization upon the latter. 
They set up tribal governments, but they allowed the 
Romans to keep their own law. Living in intimate and 
constant association with each other, intermarriages were 
common, and each people had a marked influence upon 
the other. By the eighth century the fusion of the 
two races had been completed and had produced a new 
civilization, partly Roman, partly German. 

In all the lands formerly held by Rome, except Britain, 

the language spoken by the people was a modified form of 

Latin (page 20), and not German. The schools 

Roman which existed were patterned after Roman 

contribution. 

methods, and Roman text-books were used. In 
the arts and trades there had been a great decline in skill, 
but men still sought to follow the Roman models. 

In its laws and government, however, the new civiliza- 
tion was German. The monarchy was elective, and public 

representative assemblies acted as a check 
German upon the king. The free men had an exalted 

contnDution, .... 

idea of their own importance and trusted to 
their own strength to obtain justice. The law regarded an 
accusation of crime as an attack upon a man's honor, 
against which he must defend himself. 



4 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

In shaping this civilization the Church had had a very 

important part. The only learned men were members of the 

clergy, whose aid the German kings were com- 

JhTchS. °^ P^^^^^ *^ ^®®^- "^^^ °°^y ^^^^^^ restraint which 
the rude German warriors recognized was the 
authority of the Church. Consequently, as the German 
conquerors were confronted with new problems for which 
their own customs supplied no solution, they turned to the 
clergy for advice. The latter became the trusted council- 
ors and officials in each of the new kingdoms. Their serv- 
ices were rewarded by extensive grants of land, and the 
Church became very wealthy. 

The rulers of the Franks,^ who had established a king- 
dom in what is now northern France, were especially noted 
as benefactors and champions of the Church. 
the^Church^^" ^^^® missionaries sent out by Rome were jiro- 
tected by them and aided in converting the 
heathen neighbors of the Franks. When Pippin super- 
seded the " do-nothing " Merovingian ^ ruler he sought and 
obtained from the Pope a decision that his action was 
right. When the Lombards, as the Germans who had con- 
quered the northern part of Italy were called, threatened to 
wrest Eome from the Pope, Pippin conquered them and 
gave a large portion of their territory to the Pope. When 
the Lombards again became dangerous, Pippin's son, 
Charles the Great, reconquered them and confirmed his 
father's gift. The donations of Pippin and Charles the 
Great resulted in the formation of the Papal States. 

In addition to the aid given to the missionaries and the 
subjugation of the Lombards, the Franks had performed 
another service of great importance to Christian Europe 

' A German nation which had formerly dwelt along the lower 
Rhine. 

' Merovingian, the name of the family to which Clnvis and all the 
early kings belonged. The Merovingians were succeeded by the Caro- 
lingian family. 




W 
H 

>— t 

H 

M 

Q 

<: 



INTRODUCTION 



© 



by checking the advance of the followers of Islam. This 
religion had arisen in Arabia, and had been founded by 
Mohammed, who died in 632. Its most im- 
Eise of Islam. pQ^^^nt precepts were a belief in one God who 
had determined the fate of every human being, and absolute 
obedience to His prophet Mohammed, whose commands 

BJCpliCHJNTCixpT' IrsJCpr-.ljBFR. SE?»CTVS? 

liMchoATvsxBAN/McsEXTu chiKoeee Rrl^Tivec'S i***"' 
' T<MoipTURse7C-roTiccMiSLi; cV><l bcBeTj-rbusReTC* 

.||-4^ni>u|)i<t'tf\flr»ti7^N'reReALccxTicl)»LpeuiciR.ecnsquiA.vTeTRi 

Facsimile of Merovingian Writing. 

were contained in the Koran. The Arabs, who had been 
merely an aggregation of tribes, without a common govern- 
ment or a common religion, became a nation under the 
theocratic rule of Mohammed's successors, the califs. 

Even before the Prophet died his followers had sought 
to compel others to accept the new religion. Within a 

hundred years after his death the Mohamme- 
Is°iam^^*^°^ dans conquered Persia, India, all of western 

Asia, Egypt and the whole northern coast of 
Africa, Spain, and part of southern Gaul. Everywhere 
they gave to the conquered the choice between the Koran, 
tribute, or the sword — that is, they must either embrace 
the doctrines of Islam, or pay tribute, or be exterminated. 
The fatalism which was an essential part of their creed 
2 



Q) 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



had made them almost invincible soldiers. Each war 
against unbelievers was to them a holy war, and every 
Mohammedan slain in battle was a martyr who had won 
paradise. The Prophet had commanded that all booty 
should be divided fairly among the victors. The combina- 
tion of enthusiastic religion, fatalism, and the prospect of 
booty caused Islam to be adopted eagerly by most of the 
inhabitants of the conquered countries. 

The triumphant advance of the Mohammedans received 
its first great check at Constantinople in 717. The calif 
had sent an army of eighty thousand men and 
CMfstantinople. ^ ^®®^ ^^ eighteen hundred vessels, which be- 
sieged the city by land and sea for a year- 
Then the army suffered a disastrous defeat from the Bul- 
garians, who had come to the aid of Constantinople. This, 
together with the lack of provisions, compelled the Mo- 
hammedans to retreat. Their fleet was wrecked in return- 
ing home, and it is said that only thirty thousand men and 
five vessels escaped destruction. Thus Constantinople, 
by its brave resistance, had saved eastern Europe from 
subjugation to Islam. For three hundred and fifty years 
the Mohammedans did not again attempt to capture the 
capital of the Eoman Empire. 

■ In western Europe the task of stemming the tide of 

invasion was at first more difficult, as there was no great 

bulwark like Constantinople. But the Franks 

Check in the ^^^^^^^^ ^j^^ leadership of Charles Martel forced 
west. ^ 

the Mohammedans to retreat, after a desperate 

battle near Tours (732), and gradually recovered all of 

Gaul. They did this the more easily because internal 

wars were sapping the strength of Islam, so that the Moors ^ 

in Spain ceased to be a great danger to Christianity. 

The invasions of the Germans and Mohammedans had 

' A mixed race, formed by the intermarriiige of Arabs with natives 
of the northern coast of Africa. 



® 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



wrested from the empire all of its provinces except the 

European possessions east of the Adriatic and a few places 

in Italy. The Mohammedan conquests were 

Result of separated from the Christian world not only by 

invasions, ^ _ _ j j 

a difference in religion, but also by the bar- 
riers of language and customs, for the conquerors had intro- 
duced everywhere the Arabic language and their own Ori- 
ental mode of living. In the countries conquered by the 
Germans there were many different races, each having 
its own dialect, laws, and customs. The Franks had suc- 
ceeded in conquering many of the other races, but as yet 
there was no unity of feeling except the bond of a common 
religion. If they were to survive the attacks of their more 
barbarous neighbors it was necessary that they should be 
united more closely and become more civilized. This was 
the work of Charles the Great. 

References 

Emerton's Introductian to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 
1892) is the best short volume on the subjects included in this 
chapter. Robinson's Medieval and Modern History (Boston, 1902), 
eh. ii-vi, is an admirable brief summary. 



CHAPTER II 

The Empire of Charles the Great 

Summary. — Charles the Great, by his strong personality, was able 
to influence his subjects. His interest in education led him to adopt 
Roman customs. His religious zeal brought him into intimate rela- 
tions with the papacy. As the idea of a world-wide empire, which in- 
cluded all Christians, was still held by thoughtful men, Charles, whose 
dominions were so extensive, was the logical choice for the position of 
emperor. His coronation brought him and his successors into still 
closer association with the Church. While he lived he was able to cen- 
tralize the government of his dominions in his own hands. After his 
death the elements of weakness in the imperial constitution, especially 
the German principle of division, led to the rapid decline of the empire 
and to the rise of separate and weak kingdoms. 

Chakles was large, strong, and of lofty stature, though 

not disproportionately tall.^ His height is well known to 

^ , , , have been seven times the length of his foot. 
Descnption of T i j i • • 

Charles, His appearance was always stately and digni- 

768-814. gg(j Q^^ ]^jg ^hole carriage manly. He de- 

spised foreign clothes, however splendid, and wore the na- 
tional costume of the Franks. This consisted of a linen 
shirt and linen breeches, and over these a tunic fringed 
with silk ; hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs 
and shoes his feet. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he 
always wore a sword. In winter he added a coat of otter- 
or marten-skin. On great festivals he dressed magnificently 
in embroidered clothes and shoes bedecked with gems, and 

' The description is taken from the biography of Charles, written 
by his friend and secretary. Einhard. Charles is the only man of his 
time of whom such a full description has been preserved. 

9 



10 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

wore a diadem ; but on other days his dress varied little 
from the common costume of wealthy Franks. 

He was an able, fearless general. He took frequent 
exercise on horseback and in hunting and often practised 
swimming, in which he was such an adept that 
His c aracter. j^^^g could surpass him. Although slow to 
anger, few dared to meet his fiery glances when he was 
once aroused. He was temperate in eating and especially 
in drinking, but he complained that church fasts were 
injurious to his health. He was simple in his habits and 
loved his native German customs. But he realized that 
the Koman civilization was higher and better than the 
German in many respects, and he strove to borrow from it 
all that could be serviceable to the Franks. His energy 
was inexhaustible. 

He was a ready and _ ^ient speaker both in his^ ^ive 

to ngue and in Latin, and he understood Gr eek. Hetried 

to learn to write, but he began too lateTDTTife 

ffis interest m ^^ succeed in acco mplis hi ng m uch more than 

education. « ■■ — '•r- ^ ^ ^ 

his own s ign ature. He was a zealous student, 

delighting especially in mathematics, astronomy, and the- 
ology. He established many schools in his kingdom and 
took a keen interest in the progress of the students. His 
own children were carefully educated under the direction 
of Alcuin,^ and Charles often studied with them. He 
gathered together at his court all the most learned men 
of the age and sought their aid and instruction. He was 
active in reforming and enriching the Church services and 
paid special attention to the singing, which he often di- 
rected in person. Such is the description given of him by 
his contemporaries and especially by Einhard, his'secretary. 

' Alcuin, born about 735, was educated at York. England, and 
became the most learned man of his time. He was persuaded by 
Charles to become the hitter's teaclier. Teacher and pupil lived in 
close friendship until Alcuin's death in 804. See West, Alcui?i (New 
York, 1893). 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT 11 

It is to be noted that his most important work was the 
fusing of the best elements in the two civilizations, Roman 
and German. He did not copy indiscrimi- 
^^'^"^ ■ nately, but he chose wisely the features of the 

Roman culture which seemed most desirable for his people. 
This course resulted in a profound influence upon the 
future of the Germans. 

Incpntcapl 

DIALOGliM: 

J (J BIODuLTiTuDobomi 

^UCY)lNSpeRATA occuRRrr 
cxu d t re-3-ciXLu m defci rnoLT^ 
-aNJtuinxunbu(^toctrcu no 
jj ^btpuclLxro duoc/eccKJMCm ctb 

Facsimile of Caeolingian Writing. 

In the preceding chapter the intimate relations of the 
popes and the early Frankish kings have been mentioned, 
ffis connection during the reign of Charles the alliance be- 
withthe came much closer. He had conquered the 

papacy. Lombards and had given a part of their king- 

dom to the Pope. He insisted upon the adoption of Chris- 
tianity by the Saxons whom he conquered. In his king- 
dom, in pursuance of his educational policy, he had done 
much to strengthen the Church, from whose officers he 
drew his teachers. He increased its Avealth by com- 
manding the payment of tithes by his subjects, and he 
himself set the example. When the people of Rome 
rebelled and the Pope was compelled to flee from the 



12 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

city, Charles put down the rebellion and gave the Pope 
protection. 

The grandeur of the Eoman Empire still. impressed the 

minds of men. The fourth empire in the prophecy of 

Daniel ^ was believed to be the Roman, which 

Prestige of the ^,.^g destined to endure till the end of the 

Roman Empire • 

world. Although the capital had been trans- 
ferred to Constantinople and the empire had lost much of 
its territory, reverence for the imperial idea had never been 
lost. Men believed that there must be a Roman Empire 
and could not conceive of the world without one. This 
idea was of great importance and influence throughout the 
middle ages. But the Greek Empire had lost prestige in 
the West, as its power was no longer felt. The papacy 
wished to break away from connection with it because it was 
heretical. Irene was now Empress of Constantinople ; the 
Germans considered it unfitting that a woman should gov- 
ern, and detested her for her crimes. Charles ruled almost 
all the territory in the West which formerly had been under 
the rule of Rome, besides much that had never been 
Roman. 

As the result of fifty or more military campaigns con- 
ducted under his direction, Charles had become the ruler 

■mi, 4- .1, of all the Germanic nations from the Baltic 

what the em- 
pire of Charles Sea on the north to the city of Rome on the 

included. south, from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to 

the Elbe and the Saale on the east. " He so largely increased 
the kingdom of the Franks, which was already great and 
strong when he received it from his father's hands, that 
more than double its former territory was added to it " 
(Einhard). By these conquests Charles had become more 
than the king of any nation or of any two or three na- 
tions. On the boundaries of his realm he was the nominal 
overlord of many races of barbarians ; these, however, were 

1 See Daniel, chap, ii, vv. 31-45. 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT 



13 




Seal of Charles. 



never in subjection, except when overawed by a strong 
military force. Most of the kingdom actually under his 
sway Avas occupied by Germans, 
who were divided into many na- 
tions or tribes, differing from one 
another in language, laws, and cus- 
toms. Some were civilized, while 
others were almost barbarous. 
Christianity was the state religion, 
but in many districts the pre- 
cepts of Christianity were scarcely 
known and seldom, if ever, heeded. 
Among the Saxons Charles found 
it necessary to forbid human sacri- 
fices to the pagan divinities and 
the eating of the bodies of witches. 

This rule over men of many nations, occupying such widely 
extended territory, made a vivid impression on the minds 
of his subjects. In order to describe his power, even before 
he was crowned emperor, they referred to it as imperial. 

It seemed fitting that the king who ruled the imperial 
territory should be crowned emperor at the ancient capital. 
Consequently, on Christmas day, 800, as Charles 
knelt in prayer at the altar of old St. Peter's 
in Rome, the Pope suddenly placed upon his 
head the imperial crown, and the people shouted joyously : 
" To Charles, most pious and august, crowned by God, the 
great and peace-loving emperor, be life and victory ! " 

Thus was the medieval empire founded, and Charles 

was the first of a long succession of emperors which was 

to end only in the nineteenth century. But 

s position as j^jg contemporaries did not realize that there 
emperor, ^ 

had been any new creation ; they believed that 
the old Roman Empire was still in existence and that 
Charles was the direct successor of Augustus, Trajan, and 
Constantine. Furthermore, in the opinion of his contem- 



Coronation of 
Charles. 



14 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

poraries Charles had received additional importance and 
power by the coronation. There was to them only one 
emperor, and his dignity was far greater than that of 
any king. He was thought to be the head of the Chris- 
tian Cliurch in all secular matters as the Pope was in 
all spiritual matters. As a matter of fact this never was 
true; there were always Christian countries which were 
not included in the empire. Moreover, the title did not 
add any real power ; whatever power the emperor actually 
had was due to his position as king. The empire had no 
territory, no subjects, no army, no revenues, except as these 
were supplied by the territory, subjects, army, and reve- 
nues of the king who was crowned emperor. These facts 
must be borne in mind whenever the empire is studied. 

Yet Charles believed that he had received an increase 
of power and dignity when he became ruler of the Eoman 
'scon- Empire. He required every one of his subjects 
ceptionofMs over twelve years of age to take a new oath of 
position. obedience to him, and in this oath were in- 

cluded not merely the duties to the state, but also the 
duties to God ; leading a godly life, protection to widows 
and orphans were enjoined in the same manner as military 
service or obedience to the game-laws. Charles believed 
that as emperor he was the vicegerent of God on earth, 
and in his conscientious zeal confused entirely the duties of 
the state and of the Church. This confusion is character- 
istic of the whole medieval period. 

The machinery which Charles had for enforcing these 
Q^.f^ei-s — that is, the organization of the administrative sys- 
tem in his empire — was very different from 
Administrative ^^^^^ ^^ modern kingdom. First, there 

svstGnit 

was no imperial taxation. Charles secured his 
income mainly from his private estates, which were merely 
large farms managed for his benefit. He gave much per- 
sonal attention to the care of his property, and was watch- 
ful lest he might be defrauded of some of the grain grown 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT 15 

or some of the eggs which his hens laid. In fact, some 
writers, observing the attention which he gave to these 
matters, have styled him " only a German farmer." In the 
second place, Charles expected and received gifts each year 
from most of his important officials. These gifts varied 
in character and amount, but their total value was great. 
In the third place, Charles exacted fines from his subjects 
when they were negligent in the performance of their 
duties or when they were guilty of crimes. From these 
sources and from the spoils of war the imperial treasury 
was filled. 

On the other hand, the expenses for the empire were 
very small, if compared with those of a modern govern- 
ment. There was little or no expenditure for 
The expenses. ,1 ^ j_\ t j> • 1 i • 

the army, for the police, tor internal improve- 
ments, for courts of justice, or for education. All of these 
functions were left to local officials, under the control of 
the central government, who received no salary from the 
treasury. 

The chief among these were the counts, who were 
generally chosen from the most powerful families resi- 
dent throughout the empire. Sometimes the 
o&Ims counts ruled over cities and the land adjacent ; 

sometimes they governed larger territories. 
The most important were those on the frontiers, who were 
called margraves. It was their especial duty to protect the 
empire from sudden invasions. Situated at a great dis- 
tance from the center of power, and required to be ready 
constantly to act on their own initiative, they were given 
necessarily a large amount of power and independence. 
The counts and margraves were expected to maintain 
order and administer justice in their territories. When an 
army was required they levied the soldiers, saw that they 
were properly equipped, and led them to battle. In fact, 
the whole local administration of the government was 
practically in the hands of the counts. 



IG MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

In order to maintain control over them and to cen- 
tralize the government, Charles employed special agents, 
who were called " missi do7ninici" or imperial 
issi ominici, jj^gggengers. These were sent out each year to 
the various districts of the empire. It was their duty to 
correct the mistakes in the local administration, to hear 
appeals from the judgment of the counts or margraves, to 
make known special laws enacted by the emperor, and in 
general to represent his authority. Usually two missi were 
sent out together in order that one might serve as a check 
upon the other, and their districts were changed every 
year in order to prevent collusion with the local counts. 
Ordinarily one of the missi was a layman and the other a 
bishop or abbot. 

The leading members of the clergy played an important 
part in the government. They held large properties, and 
over these they exercised the same powers that 
ATDbotsand ^j^^ counts had over land not held by the 
Church. The position of the Church as a 
whole will be treated in the following chapter ; here it is 
essential to note only the share it had in the government. 
The abbots and bishops administered justice, raised the 
troops, and acted in every way as imperial officials. This 
tended still more to increase the confusion between the 
religious duties and the political duties, which has been 
noted already. 

That Charles had united western Europe and brought 

the nations together into a Christian state had been due 

„^ . „ mainly to the strength of his own personal 

Tne influence •' '^ , t i <? i 

of Charles's character. His subjects respected and teared 
personality. ]-,^jj^ , ^j^gy admired his bravery and dreaded 
his anger. He was devoted to the service of the Church, 
but he ruled its members with a firm hand and made them 
aid in the imperial administration. By the force of his 
personality he controlled all the discordant elements in the 
state and founded the medieval empire. After his death 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT lY 

the empire was not strong enough to make the union 
permanent. It soon split up into separate kingdoms, but 
the memory of it was one of the cohesive forces for the 
future. 

Where so much power was entrusted to the counts and 
the missi, it was certain to be abused whenever the emperor's 
El ments of ^^^ could be eluded. Einhard says that the 
weakness : the missi were frequently dishonest. It was to 
officials. their interest to connive at the misdeeds of 

the counts. The latter were almost independent in their 
own counties and used their great opportunities for their 
own profit. There was much friction between the lay offi- 
cials and the rulers of the Church. It was a period of law- 
lessness and barbarism. 

Each of the separate nations forming the empire had 
its own laws, customs, and dialect. They felt little inter- 
est in the empire, and were held in check only 
ni!* ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Charles or by the need of his pro- 

tection from their barbarian neighbors. 
The Franks, who were the immediate subjects of Charles 
and formed his greatest strength, were being destroyed by 
the wars which had lasted for so many years, 
fhfprf^r^ As many were either killed or wounded and 
others ruined, throughout the empire it was 
more and more difficult to obtain men for the army. But 
of all the Germans, it was the Franks who suffered the 
most, and as there was no interval of peace, their strength 
and numbers gradually became exhausted. 

The great extent of the empire made government diffi- 
cult. The roads were extremely bad, and traveling was 
dangerous, as robbers lurked in the woods. It 
communication. ^^ "^^^^ ^^ remember that western Europe was 
very sparsely settled ; that there were no rail- 
roads, no steamboats, and no telegraph. The roads and 
bridges which the Eomans had made were being destroyed 
by the lapse of time, and the subjects of Charles did not 



18 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



know liow to make new ones equally good. All travel by 

land had to be on horseback, or in carts, or on foot. On 

the water, rowing or towing was the usual method ; as men 

did not know how to tack, sails were of no use except in 

going before the wind. 

The greatest danger to the empire, however, and the 

real cause of its disintegration was the German liabit of 

dividing the father's kingdom among all the 

German prin- gons. When there were several sons each one 
ciple of division. 

was given his share. A kingdom was treated 
just like the estate of a wealthy man, and was parceled 
out so that each son should have an equal, or nearly equal, 
portion. At Pippin's death the kingdom had been divided 
between Charles and his brother. They were not in har- 
mony, but the brother's early death prevented the kingdom 
from being weakened. Charles planned to divide his em- 
pire among his three sons ; in this case disunion was de- 
layed because two of the sons died before the death of 
Charles. The full effect of this bad 
policy of division was seen in the reign 
of his son. 

Lewis, called the Pious because of 

his devotion to the Church, succeeded 

Charles in 814, but was 

not equal to the task of 

ruling the empire. He 

was not a great warrior, nor was he 

admired and feared by his subjects as 

his father had been. Yet his greatest 




Lewis I, 
814 840. 



Seal op 
Lewis the Pious. 



troubles arose from following in his 



father's footsteps, by dividing the em- 
pire among his sons. In 817 he arranged the portions 
which each one of his three sons should have as a king- 
dom after his own death. The eldest, Lothair, was to 
have the lion's share and was made coemperor with his 
father. 



THE EMPIRE OP CHARLES THE GREAT 19 

Soon after this division the empress died. Lewis fell 
into a fit of despondency and talked of abdicating, in order 

to spend the rest of his life as a monk. His 
s second advisers and subiects were alarmed, as thev 

feared that his sons Avere too young to rule. 
At first they tried in vain to shake his determination ; then 
they planned to make him marry again. As the king showed 
no interest and would not choose a wife, his advisers gath- 
ered together all the fairest maidens among the nobility 
and brought them before the emperor. The beautiful 
Judith caught his fancy and became his queen. They had 
one son, who was known later as Charles the Bald. Judith 
soon acquired great influence over the emperor and used it 
to procure a kingdom for her son. 

In 829, when the boy was seven years old, Lewis was 
persuaded to make a new division, taking away a portion 

of Lothair's share and giving it to Charles. 
JJ;™'°**^' All the older sons were angry and fearful that 

their father in his partiality for Charles would 
give him still more. From this time they were almost 
constantly in revolt and at war with their father or with 
one another. The fortune of war shifted from one side to 
the other, and each time a new division of the empire was 
made. Finally, Lewis the Pious died in 840, leaving the 
imperial crown to Lothair and a kingdom to each of his 
surviving sons. There were only three kingdoms ; as one 
of the sons. Pippin, had died in 838, and the part intended 
for him had been added to the territory of Charles the 
Bald. 

After the death of his father, Lewis the Pious, Lothair 
tried to secure the whole empire. In 841 he gave battle to 

the allied forces of his brothers, Lewis the 
Fontinf . German and Charles the Bald. The latter 

were victorious and Lothair suffered a decisive 
defeat. This battle determined the fate of the empire. 
The German principle of division which had been frus- 



20 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

trated so often by fate had triumphed, and the lands 
ruled by Charles the Great were now divided into three 
separate kingdoms. 

The brothers, however, still felt the need of union 

against Lothair. In 842 Lewis and Charles met at Strass- 

burg and took an oath to continue their al- 

Oath of liance. This oath has been preserved, and is 

StrassDurg, '■ ' 

of especial interest because each took the oath 
in the language spoken by the subjects of the other. 
Lewis used the following language : " Fro Deo amur et pro 
cliristian poblo et nostro commuii salvament, dist di in 
avant^ in quant Dens savir et podir me dunat, si salvaraeio 
cist meon fradre Karlo^ et in adiudha et in cadliuna cosa, si 
cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi 
altresi fazet ; et ab Ltidher nul plaid numquam prindrai^ 
qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sity Then 
Charles repeated the same oath in the German language : 
" In Godes minna ind in tlies christianes folches ind unser 
hedhero gealtnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so f ram so 
mir Got gewizci indi madh furgihit, so lialdih tesan minan 
hruodher, soso man ?)iit rehtu sinan bruher seal, in thiu, 
thaz er mig sosoma duo indi mit Ludheren in noliheiniu 
thing ne gegango, the minan willon imo ce scadhen werhen.'''' ^ 
These are the earliest specimens which have been pre- 
served of the Eomance and Germanic languages. It is 
clear that the two people could not understand each other, 
and it is interesting to note that only one word has prac- 
tically the same form in the two oaths. 

In the following year the three brothers met and agreed 
to the treaty of Verdun. By this treaty Lewis the German 

' Out of love for God and for the good of the Christian people and 
our own salvation, I will in future, from this day forth, as far as God 
gives to me wisdom and power, treat this my brother as one ought to 
treat his brother, on the condition that he does the same by me. And 
with Lothair I will not willingly enter into any agreement which may 
injure this my brother. 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT 



21 



received lands inhabited almost entirely by German tribes. 

The possessions on the west of the Khine were said to 
have been given to him so that he might have 
some places which would furnish him with a 
supply of wine. The kingdom of Charles was 

inhabited mainly by the descendants of Romanized Gauls. 

Lothair, however, had a long and comparatively narrow 



Treaty of 
Verdun, 




Charles the Bald. 



strip extending from Aachen to Eome. inhabited by men 
of different races. In their arrangements for the divi- 
sion of their family property the sons of Lewis had taken 
no account of the physical geography. The kingdom of 
Lothair had no natural boundaries and was exposed to 
3 



THE EMPIRE OP CHARLES THE GREAT 23 

invasion on all its frontiers ; the two capitals were situ- 
ated at the northern and southern extremities. It was 
possible for the kingdom of Lewis to develop into Ger- 
many and for the kingdom of Charles to develop into 
France. The empire of Lothair was destined to have no 
national unity and to be a bone of contention for more 
than a thousand years. 

From this time the fortunes of the Frankish Empire 
declined. Its territories were divided and siibdivided. The 
real heirs of Charles the Great were the dukes, 
of Charks ^^"^^ counts, and bishops, who became more inde- 
pendent as the Carolingian rulers became 
weaker, for in each of the kingdoms the ruler was intent 
upon increasing his territory or upon securing the imperial 
title. In order to gain the support of his subjects for his 
ambitious plans, he was obliged to make constant conces- 
sions of lands and powers until he was left almost without 
resources for maintaining the empty titles of king and em- 
peror. 

References 

The best work on Charles the Great is Mombert's CTiarles the 
Great (New York, 1888). Hodgkin's Charles the Great (New York, 
1897) is a good short biography. West's Alcuin (New York, 1893) 
has interesting accounts of the studies pursued by Charles. Hen- 
derson's History of Germany (London, 1894), Sergeant's The 
Frayilcs (New York, 1898), and Emerton's Medieval Europe (Boston, 
1894) have chapters covering the period. Einhard's Biography of 
Charles has been translated and jiublished under the title Eginhard : 
Life of Charlemagne (New York, 1880) ; this is one of the most 
important sources, as the author gathered his materials from the 
emperor hniiself. Selections from the laws of Charles are published 
in Vol. VI, No. 5, of the series of Translations and lieprints (Phila- 
delphia, 1899). 



24: 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



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CHAPTER III 

The Church 

Summary. — Men believed that there was but one Church, of which 
all Christians were ineiubers. This Church held extensive possessions 
and exercised jurisdiction in different ways. By its punishments it 
conti'olled the unruly ; by its services to civilization it secured influ- 
ence and wealth. In particular, it was the great educational agency 
throughout the early middle ages. 

Just as men believed in one empire which included all 
Christian lands, so they believed in one Church. They 
Medieval con- thought of the empire as having a real exist- 
ceptionofthe ence entirely distinct from the countries of 
Church, which it was composed and as conferring upon 

its ruler a greater authority than that possessed by any 
king. In a similar manner they thought of the Church as 
an entity possessing property and having authority over 
all Christians. They therefore spoke of the power of the 
Church, or of a war between the Church and the empire. 

The Church was engaged in two very different tasks, 
although they were closely connected. On the one hand, 
it taught people religion and watched over 
Jfthe°Church^ ^^^®^^ morals ; on the other, it was a great gov- 
erning body, ruling many with the same power 
and duties as a monarch. All persons on lands held by the 
Church were subject to this latter kind of authority and 
their number was very great, for the Church had extensive 
possessions in every country of western Europe. Part of 
its lands had been received as pious gifts; another part 
had been reclaimed from the wilderness by the labors of 



THE CHURCH 27 

the monks ; other lands had been bought. On these it was 
necessary that justice should be enforced and that order 
should be maintained. As their territories and subjects 
were exposed to constant attacks from neighbors or in- 
vaders, an army was needed. The abbots and bishops who 
were the rulers of these estates were therefore the source 
of all local authority. As has been stated, they maintained 
order, held the courts, and raised the armies. Charles the 
Great summoned the bishops and abbots in the empire to 
act as missi dominici. Consequently they were not merely 
guides in religious matters, but also judges and officials of 
the king. They taught the religious duties and had power 
to condemn criminals to death ; they directed the schools, 
collected the feudal dues, and made war and peace. 

The supreme authority in all matters of faith was held 
by the Pope, who also ruled the city of Rome and the sur- 
rounding territory. Next in rank were the 
archbishops, then the bishops, and below them 
the parish priests, deacons, and other officials of the Church. 
All of these, bishops, priests, and deacons, were called the 
secular clergy,^ partly because they were engaged in direct- 
ing the affairs of the Church and in watching over the 
morals of the people, but especially to distinguish them 
from the regular - clergy. 

The regular clergy were men and women, governed by 

monastic rules, who had retired from the world to live in 

monasteries and to devote their lives to the 

eg ar c ergy, ggj^^-^g ^^ q^^^ There were many thousands, 

dwelling in almost every portion of western Europe. They 
had done much by their missionary journeys to spread the 
teachings of Christ. With a few exceptions the schools 
were in the monasteries, taught by them, and most of the 
books were written or copied by the monks. They had 

' Prom seculum, used in the sense of " the world." 
2 From regula, a rule. 



^8 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

also done much for the material welfare of the people. 
Travelers, rich or poor, were received freely and without 
charge into the monasteries, which supplied the absence of 
inns and made traveling possible. The monks were less 
ignorant than the people about them, and taught their 
neighbors better methods of farming and working. They 
gave a new dignity to manual labor, which had been de- 
spised by free men, for they worked even when they were 
not compelled to earn their own living. St. Benedict, 
whose rule was followed by almost all the monks in the 
West, had inculcated the habit of labor, both manual and 
intellectual, as a pious duty. " Idleness is the enemy of 
the soul, and for this reason the brethren are to be engaged 
at fixed times in manual labor, also at certain hours in the 
study of sacred books." ^ 

In addition to the secular and regular clergy, the Church 
included all the inhabitants of the empire except the Jews, 
who were few in number. All the others were 
^^ ^' compelled to be Christians and to be under the 

authority of the Church. After conquering the Saxons, 
Charles the Great had commanded ^ that every man, woman, 
and child should be baptized within a year under penalty 
of death. He had also ordered that every one should attend 
services on Sunday and contribute to the support of the 
Church. 

The primary duty of the Church was to teach religion 
and to keep its members from sin. In all matters of re- 
ligion its officials were the judges, who deter- 
the cwr °^ mined whether people had done right or wrong, 
and punished the guilty. Many things were 
considered religious matters which would now be judged 
by the state courts. As marriages were performed by the 



1 Rule of St. Benedict, chap, xlviii. About six hours daily were to 
be spent in manual labor and two hours in study. 
° Undated law, published between 775 and 790. 



THE CHURCH 



29 



clergy, all questions connected with marriages were de- 
cided by the bishops or their representatives. Many crimes 
or transgressions were thought of primarily as sins, and 
consequently came under the Jurisdiction of the Church. 
No Christian was exempt 
from this jurisdiction. 
Kings as well as their 
subjects were expected to 
obey in all matters of re- 
ligion. As the Archbishop 
of Eheims wrote in the 
ninth century : " The king 
is a man just like other 
men. He ought to respect 
the Church and the prop- 
erty of his neighbor. His 
duties are the same as 
those of other Christians." 
Acting on this principle, 
the members of the clergy 
frequently condemned the 
actions of the kings and 
nobles. In some instances 
the Pope declared a king 
deposed and forbade his subjects to obey him, because he 
had been guilty of a crime against religion. Thus Lothair 
IT, the great-grandson of Charles the Great, was declared 
deposed because he had divorced his wife and married 
again, contrary to the teachings of the Church and to the 
Pope's command. Lothair was compelled finally to recog- 
nize the authority of the Pope.' 

The Church enforced its power by various means. Some 
of its members were sincerely pious and loved to fulfil 




Bishop. 

(After miniature of ninth to eleventh 

century.) 



' For a more famous instance of the exercise of this authority, see 
chap, vi. 



30 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

their religious duties ; but in such an age of barbarism and 
warfare many could be controlled only through fear. To 
Th Churcli's them were preached the terrors in store for 
means of the guilty, who would suffer horrible tortures 

control. -j^ ^j^g next world. A brutal nobleman, who 

feared nothing on earth, could often be reduced to obedi- 
ence by a vivid description of the eternal punishment 
awaiting him unless he repented. 

The penitent were required to show their repentance by 
doing penance. This was a custom which had grown up 
in the early Church, and was based upon the 
feeling that a guilty man ought to show his 
sorrow by his actions and to make such atonement as lay 
in his power. Consequently a knight who had killed an 
opponent might be required to lay aside his arms and to 
engage in a work of charity, or a man who had sinned 
grievously might be ordered to give up his ordinary pur- 
suits and to make a pilgrimage to the shrine of some saint, 
or to Rome, or even to Jerusalem. His willingness to 
abandon all and to expose himself to the perils and priva- 
tions of a pilgrimage would show that he was sincerely 
penitent. Many entered monasteries in order to atone for 
the evil lives which they had led. 

If a man remained obdurate and would not heed the 
commands of the Church, he was excommunicated— that 
is, he was shut out from the common life of 
tion""™'™"^' Christians and from all association with his 
fellow men. If a man died excommunicate 
he was believed to be condemned to eternal punishment. 
In order to compel him to repent no one was allowed 
tO' have anything to do with him ; even the members of 
his own family were excommunicated if they ate with 
him or befriended him. 

In case a ruler was obstinate and would not submit, 
even when excommunicated, his land was placed under an 
interdict. In all his territory no public church services 



THE CHURCH 31 

were held, no marriages were performed, no dead bodies 
were given burial. " The people were forbidden to enter 
the churches for the purpose of worshiping 
God, and the doors were locked. The music 
of the bells was silenced and the bodies of the dead lay 
unburied and putrefying, striking the beholders with fear 
and horror. The pleasures of marriage were denied to 
those desiring them, and the solemn joys of the church 
services were no longer known." ^ By such deprivations 
the people would be reduced to distress and terror, and 
usually the ruler had to yield. 

It would be unjust, however, to ascribe the hold which 
the Church of our ancestors had upon the people to its 
Infl fth terrors and punishments, for these were in- 
Church due to tended only for the guilty. Its power was 
Its services. secured mainly because of the useful services 
which it j)erformed. Some of the good which the monks 
did has been referred to already. The secular clergy were 
the spiritual guides of their parishioners ; they baptized, 
married, and buried the people. The priest was the leader 
in the parish and the churches were the gathering-places 
not only for religious services, but also for social diversions. 
Sunday was the holiday for the hard-working population, 
and it was spent in or near the church. In addition to 
the religious services, which all attended, the priest would 
read to the people letters from the absent — especially dur- 
ing the time of the crusades — and would announce any 
news that he had heard. Often between the morning and 
evening services there were games or other amusements. 
The church was for the peasants the center of all their 
social life. Naturally when such power and influence were 
in the hands of the priest there were some unworthy of 
their vocation — some bad men who sought the office and 

1 From an interdict laid in Normandy in 1137. See Translations 
and Reprints, vol. iv, No. 4. 



32 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

did not perform its duties. Ambitious men were especially 
tempted to obtain the bishoprics on account of the great 
power and wealth which a bishop had ; sometimes a worldly 
layman was given a bishopric by a king who wanted to re- 
ward a favorite. In a time of such general ignorance the 
members of the clergy were not always much more learned 
than the people under their charge. The church councils 
labored earnestly to correct these evils and to compel all 
members of the clergy to lead righteous lives. Sometimes 
the reformers took a gloomy view of the times in which 
they lived, and thought that the morals were declining. 
At the present time it is possible to contrast the condition 
of society at the end of the middle ages with the society in 
the feudal period and to realize the enormous advance 
which had been made. This advance was due mainly to 
the influence of the clergy, as they were for centuries the 
only teachers of the people. 

References 

Cunningliara, Westei'n Civilization (Medieval and Modern Times) 
(Cambridge, 1900), pp. 17-40. Formation of the Papacy : Adams, 
Civilization (New York, 1894), chap. vi. Monks of the West : 
Emerton, Introduction., chap. xi. Organization in Parishes in Eng- 
land: Green, Conquest of England (LowAon.XSS^), \)^. I'^-IQ. Mon- 
astic Movement in Enghind in the Seventh Century: Green, MaMng 
of England (New York, 1883), pp. 335-370. Why Men went into 
Monasteries: Montalembert, Monies of the West (Boston, 1860), 
vol. i, pp. 226-249. Discipline: Cutts, Parish Priests and their 
People (London, 1898), chap. xxxi. 



CHAPTER IV 

The Invasions 

SuMJiARY. — The weakness of the Carolingian monarchs exposed 
their kingdoms to invasions by Saracens, Slavs, Hungarians, and 
Northmen. The last were by far the most dangerous foes. Their 
constant raids and the rapidity of their movements compelled the peo- 
ple in each locality to seek aid from any strong man who could pro- 
tect them. Consequently the nobles who held castles, which served as 
places of refuge, and had military forces to defend the peasants, gradu- 
ally became all-powerful in the different parts of the kingdoms. In 
return for their protection they demanded services and pay from the 
people. 

After the death of Lewis the Pious in 840 there was 
no strong central government, for his sons were engaged 
Weakness of the ^^^ constant warfare. Busy with attempts to 
Carolingian gain more territory, they were unable to keep 
^^^' order in their own kingdoms, and, being jeal- 

ous of one another, they did not join together to repel 
invaders. AVithin each kingdom the means of communica- 
tion were bad, so that news traveled slowly ; and the roads 
were out of repair, so that soldiers could not be sent rap- 
idly from one part of the kingdom to another. Further- 
more, no feeling of patriotism or nationality led the in- 
habitants in one section to help the people in another. 
Because of this weakness and disunion the frontiers were 
harried repeatedly by invaders, and even the interior of the 
country was never secure from attack. 

In the south the Saracens from Spain and northern 
Africa made constant raids, sacking the towns on the coast 
of Italy and the cities in southern Gaul, where they plun- 

33 



34 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

dered the monasteries and burned the churches. One place 
after another was laid waste by them, and neither the 
Eastern emperor nor the German kings could 
The Saracens, protect their subjects. In 827 they began the 
conquest of Sicily, which was completed after half a cen- 
tury of war with the Greek emperor. They devastated the 
country about Eome, and even sacked the Church of St. 
Peter, which was not within the limits X>t the city walls. 
After they had been defeated Pope Leo built a great wall 
around that portion of Eome where St. Peter's and the 
Vatican now stand, and this enclosure was called in his 
honor the Leonine city. Soon after this the Saracens con- 
quered Corsica, Sardinia, and most of southern Italy. 

The eastern frontiers were attacked by the Slavs and 
Hungarians. The former ravaged Thuringia and con- 
quered Moravia. Along the Danube the Hun- 
Slavs and garians, or Magyars, as they called themselves, 

Hungarians. o ■> oj ■> j 

made swift raids, pillaging the country. They 

were savages who traveled on horseback, and swooping 
down without warning on some town or village, they would 
kill all the men and old women, sparing only the boys and 
maidens, whom they carried into slavery. They were 
famous for their greed, and there was a saying current 
among the Germans that if a piece of gold were placed on 
the grave of a dead Hungarian he would put up his hand 
to seize it. 

The most dangerous of all the invaders were the North- 
men, who came from the Scandinavian countries — Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden. These people were still 

The Northmen, , „ , , _li . i • 

pagans and tar more barbarous than the in- 
habitants of the Carolingian kingdoms. They were ac- 
customed to life on the sea and were hard fighters. Tempted 
by their love of adventure and the desire for gain, they 
made plundering expeditions along the coasts of Gaul, 
Britain, and Ireland. At first these were of little impor- 
tance, but in the ninth century revolutions in Norway and 



THE INVASIONS 



35 



Denmark led to an enormous increase in the number of 
Northmen who engaged in marauding expeditions ; for two 
great kingdoms were established in these countries by mon- 
archs who maintained order and forced all who would not 
submit to their power to leave the land. Then piracy be- 
came the principal occupation of the outlaws, who built 
long open boats which would hold about sixty to eighty 
men and which could be propelled either by oars or sails. 




Boat found at Nydam in Schleswig. 



These boats drew little water and could be concealed very 
easily.^ The chiefs of these bands of vikings, as the North- 
men were called, " never sought refuge under a roof nor 
emptied their drinking-horns by a hearth." " The eager 
prince would drink his Yule at sea and play Frey's game 
[war] if he had his will. From his youth up he loathed 
the fire-boiler [hearth] and sitting indoors, the warm 
bower, and the bolster full of down." 

Their method of attack was to ascend some 

attack river, hide their boat in a favorable spot, and 

then fall upon the nearest village. If they 

' Three of these boats have been found in modern times buried in 
swamps in Denmark and Sweden. The best preserved is 75 feet in 
lon2:th (60 feet along the keel), 13 feet wide, and 3-J^ feet deep amidships. 
It had 16 oars on each side. 



36 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

met with a determined resistance they wonld feign a flight; 
but when the enemy scattered in pnrsnit they wonld form 
again and renew the attack. 

" They are well cared for, the warriors that cast dice in 
Harold's court. They are endowed with wealth and with 

fair swords, with the ore of the Huns, and 
SomSgir ^^itli ^^^ids fr««i tl^e East. They are glad 

when they have hopes of a battle ; they will 
leap up in hot haste and ply the oars, snapping the oar- 
thongs and cracking the tholes. Fiercely, I ween, do they 
churn the water with their oars at the king's bidding." 
" Ships came from the West ready for war, with grinning 
heads and carven beaks. They were laden with warriors, 
with white shields, with Western spears, and Welsh [Gaul- 
ish] swords. They tried their strength against the eager 
king, the Lord of the Eastmen that dwells at Outstone, 
and he taught them to flee. The king launched his ship 
when he looked for the battle." "The flying javelin bit, 
peace was belied there, the wolf was glad, and the bow was 
drawn, the bolts clattered, the spear-points bit, the flaxen 
bow-string bore the arrows out of the bow. He brandished 
the buckler on his arm, the rouser of the play of blades — 
he is a mighty hero." ^ 

In order to capture larger towns and thus secure more 
booty, many vikings would join together. In the summer 

they gathered their boats near some island 
Camps on which they fortified, and from this as a center 

made raids upon the surrounding country. 
When the invasions first began they returned home each fall 
with their " summer harvest." Later on, as a matter of 
convenience or of necessity, because the leaders had been 
outlawed, they made winter camps on islands near the 
mouth of the Seine, Loire, and other rivers. 



' The sagas are popular legends of the Northmen, describing their 
prowess and combats. 



THE INVASIONS 



37 



Various 
expeditions 




In 795 they made a descent on the coast of Ireland. In 
841 and the succeeding years different bands sacked many 
parts of Gaul. A contemporary chronicler 
writes : " The Northmen, as they were wont to 
do, put the Christians to shame and grew more 
and more in strength. But it is a sorrow to have to write 
these things." Charles the Bald built fortified bridges to 
prevent the invaders from as- 
cending rivers, but he was not 
able to defend these bridges. 
Another contemporary wrote : 
" All men give themselves to 
flight. No one cries out, '■iStaiid 
and fight for your fatlierland^ 
for your Church, for your 
countrymen.'' What they 
ought to defend with arms 
they shamefully redeem by 
payments. The commonweal 
of Christendom is betrayed by 
its guardians." In 885 seven 

hundred or more vessels were gathered together to besiege 
Paris ; after a siege of a year the emperor, Charles the 
Fat, bought the invaders off by a bribe and an invitation to 
plunder northern Burgundy. In the same century some 
Northmen went as far as Constantinople and entered into 
the service of the emperor of the East. Others under 
Hastings attacked the Moors in Spain, ascended the Gua- 
dalquivir, and sacked Seville. Later Hastings made de- 
scents on the Italian coast, plundering Pisa and Luna. In 
867 most of the piratical bands of Northmen attacked Eng- 
land and were so successful that in 878, by the peace of 
Wed more, the Danes were recognized as masters of the 
north of England. In 911 Duke Eollo received a grant of 
Normandy from the French king under the condition that 
he should defend it. From this time on the Normans, as 
4 



Plaque of Gold, representing 
Northern Deities. 



38 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

they soon came to be called, were one of the most impor- 
tant peoj)les of Europe. 

These constant invasions showed the weakness of the 

kings, and the people soon learned that they could expect 

little help from their sovereigns. In every 

Necessity of place which was exposed to invasions — and no 
local defense. ^ ^ 

part of western Europe was safe from them — 

the inhabitants were compelled to provide for their own 
defense.^ The nobles built castles which served as places 
of refuge for the neighboring peasants. For the sake of 
protection little villages were built usually at the foot of 
the hills on which the castles stood. In the larger towns 
the people built stronger walls and towers, but they trusted 
to a great extent in the protection which their noble lord 
could furnish. Consequently these invasions made the 
people of each district look to resident nobles for the de- 
fense which the king was unable to give. 

The lord of the castle was compelled to perform the 
duties of the king, and wherever a warlike noble could 
furnish protection he was recognized as the 
Power of the chief power ; he collected the taxes, admin- 
istered justice, and led the people in battle. 
Consequently northern and western Europe became divided 
up into small local units under the lordship of fighting 
nobles, and the king was forced to recognize their power. 
He had to depend upon them when he needed an army, 
and in return for their aid he legalized their position and 
agreed not to interfere with their administration of justice ; 
he did the same for the abbots and bishops, 
Mersen^847 ^^^^ occupied the same position and had the 
same power as the lay nobles. In 847 a law 
was passed that every free man must have a lord who would 
be responsible for him and whom he must serve. He was to 

' A special petition was aflded to the church service : " Prom the 
fury of the Northmen, Lord, deliver us ! *' 



THE INVASIONS 39 

serve and obey only his immediate lord unless there was 
a general invasion of the kingdom, which would make it 
necessary for the king to summon all the men. The weak- 
ness of the kings and the necessity of granting power to 
the nobles resulted in the establishment of feudal usages 
throughout western Europe. 

References 

• Saracens in Spain: Oman, Dark Ages (New York, 1893), pp. 234, 
271; Saracens in Gaul: Oman, pp. 292, 293, 409; Saracens in Italy: 
Oman, pp. 450-452, 456-462, 465, 466; and Gibbon (ed. Bury), vol. 
vi, pp. 37-43 (part of chap. lii). Hungarians: Oman, pp. 465, 471, 
474, 476. The Northmen in their Home : Johnson, Normans (New 
York, 1893), chap. i. Appearance, Dress, etc., of Normans: John- 
son, pp. 17-19. Normans in Russia and Constantinople: Johnson, 
pp. 29-32. Normans in Italy : Gibbon (ed. Bury), vol. vi, pp. 173- 
193 (part of chap. Ivi). 



CHAPTER V 

Feudalism 

Summary. — The powers which had been exercised by the kings 
passed into the hands of the nobles, and feudal usages superseded mon- 
archical. The elements which shaped European feudalism were the 
practise of commendation, the bestowal of fiefs, and the grants of im- 
munity. The lords owed duties to their vassals and had the right to 
demand from the latter services. All political, social, and economic 
conditions were determined by feudal customs. 

In many coimtries society has passed through a feudal 
stage. Wherever the central authority has proved too 
Feudalism not weak to defend its subjects and to maintain 
confined to order it has been necessary for some one else 
nrope. ^^ perform these duties. In such a case the 

one who offered efficient aid demanded in return obedience 
and compensation from those whom he protected. An- 
cient Egypt for some centuries was governed chiefly by 
feudal nobles, and in Japan until a generation ago feu- 
dalism was the recognized condition of affairs. 

In western Europe, after the decline of the Carolin- 

gian empire, the weakness of the kings, the difficulty in 

going from one place to another, the lack of 

Power of noUes feeling of unity among the different 

in Europe. jo j o ^ ^ 

peoples, and the need of protection against 
the Northmen and other invaders, made it necessary to 
arrange some means of defense in each locality. Usually 
some nobleman became the defender and ruler, and al- 
though kings still continued to rule in name, the actual 
power passed gradually in each district to the nobles. 
40 



FEUDALISM 41 

This change took place more easily because the nobles 
under earlier rulers had acted as the king's agents in the 
government. 

In order to understand their position it is necessary to 
study the customs whicli shaped feudalism. The elements 
Elements of which determined the form of European feu- 
feudalism : dalism were three in number : the practise of 
commendation, commendation, the holding of benefices or 
fiefs, and the possession of immunities. Commendation 
was the act by which a free man became the vassal of some 
other man. In order to obtain food and clothing, or to 
secure protection, or to increase his own importance, a 
man might commend himself to some one more powerful — a 
noble, or a bishop, or an abbot — who became his lord ; that 
is, the man promised to serve the lord faithfully, to aid him 
in fighting or with advice ; in short, to be his vassal. In 
return the lord promised support and protection. The 
vassal did not lose his position as a free man and did not 
sink at all in the social scale. The nobles welcomed vas- 
sals because of the added importance and strength which 
it gave to them to have a large body of followers. A 
typical formula of commendation reads : " Since it is known 
familiarly to all how little I have whence to feed and clothe 
myself, I have therefore petitioned your piety, and your good- 
will has decreed to me that I should hand myself over or 
commend myself to your guardianship, which I have there- 
upon done — that is to say, in this way : that you should aid 
and succor me as well with food as with clothing, according 
as I shall be able to serve you and deserve it. And so long 
as I shall live I ought to provide service and honor to you, 
suitably to my free condition ; and I shall not during the 
time of my life have the ability to witlidraw from your 
power or guardianship, but must remain during the days 
of my life under your power or defense." ^ 

' See Translations and Reprmts, vol. iv, No. 3. 



42 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

A benefice or a fief ^ was usually a grant of land made by 

a lord to a vassal. Such a grant might be made for various 

reasons. In the first place, money was scarce 
Benefice or fiefi -, t,,i i i xi i • • j. i 

and little used ; when the king appointed a 

count or otlier official to govern a portion of the kingdom, 
he paid him no salary in money, but instead he gave him 
land which would produce food and other necessaries. In 
return the ofiicial became his vassal. When a nobleman 
needed soldiers he hired them by giving them land in re- 
turn for their services, and they became liis vassals. Often 
men who owned land, and needed protection, handed it over 
to some more powerful person as a gift on condition of re. 
ceiving it back as a benefice. In this way they became the 
vassals of the lord to whom they had transferred the land. 
As will be seen below, they lost little by giving up their 
title to the property, and they often secured powerful pro- 
tection. Sometimes as a pious act they gave land to the 
Church, and received it back as a benefice. When a man 
was granted a fief the land did not actually belong to him, 
but he had the use of it and the profits arising from it. 
Usually he made a payment in money or produce, each 
year, to the lord, not as rent, but as a recognition that the 
land belonged to the lord. Generally his son, if he had 
one, succeeded to the fief, and the same land was held by 
the same family, generation after generation. 

Gradually almost all the allodial, or freehold property, 
was changed into benefices and fiefs, and it became a legal 
maxim that there was no land without a lord, 
without a lord " "^^^^^ ^^^ never quite true, as there was always 
some land which was held allodially. But the 
theory was framed that the king held his kingdom from 
God, and the vassals held directly or indirectly from the 

' The words benefice and fief are used here as synonyms. In the 
middle ages each word was used with several different meanings. The 
most usual definition for a fief was land for which the vassal, or heredi- 
tary holder, paid to the direct owner, or lord, services of a particular 



FEUDALISM 



43 



Subinfeudation. 



king. By the time that feudal customs had become thor- 
oughly established — that is, in the tenth and eleventh cen- 
turies — there was no ab- 
solute ownership of land; 
each vassal had merely the 
use of his benefice or fief. 
Land-holding formed the 
main basis of feudal obli- 
gations; but the old per- 
sonal bond of service and 
loyalty, represented by 
commendation, never dis- 
appeared entirely. 

AYhen a lord had a 
large amount of land he 

kept such a 

portion of it 
as was necessary for his 
own support, and divided 
the rest into fiefs in order 
to gain followers. Thus 
a count might receive a 
county from the king for 
his services ; he would 
then gradually divide up 
his county into larger or 
smaller parcels, and grant 
most of these as fiefs to 
others ; they in turn might 
grant the whole or por- 
tions of their fiefs to oth- 
ers, and the latter would 

be the vassals of the one from whom they received the 
land — i. e., vassals of the vassals of the count, who was 

kind, such as military service. A benefice diflEered from a fief in not 
being hereditary (Luchaire). 




Carolingian Emperor. 



44: MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

himself a vassal of the king. This process is called sub- 
infeudation. 

The third of the elements which shaped European feu- 
dalism was the immunity. As the kings became weaker it 
was impossible for them to repress disorder and 
crime ; they were unable to hold courts and 
punish offenders in the various parts of the kingdom. 
Consequently it became the custom of the king to dele- 
gate his authority in this respect to his vassals. They were 
permitted to hold courts on their own estates, and the king 
promised that no royal official should enter their fiefs to 
hold court. This privilege was called an immunity. The 
vassals valued this immunity, because the penalty for almost 
all wrongdoing consisted of fines, usually in money, which 
went to the one holding the court. Thus an immunity not 
only added to the vassal's power, but was also a source of 
income. A typical formula of immunity reads : " We have 

seen fit to grant to that apostolic man. Lord , Bishop 

of ; that in the lands of the Church of that Lord, no 

public judge shall at any time presume to enter for the 
hearing of causes or for the exaction of payments ; but the 
prelate himself or his successors . . . shall be able to rule 
over this. We require, therefore, that neither you, nor any 
other public judicial power, shall presume at any time to 
enter into the lands of the same Church anywhere in our 
kingdom, either those granted by royal bounty or by that of 
private persons or those which shall in future be granted ; 
either for the sake of hearing altercations or to exact fines 
for any causes or to obtain sureties. But whatever the 
Treasury could expect either of fines or other things either 
from freemen or from servants and other nations who are 
within the fields or boundaries or dwelling upon the lands 
of the aforesaid Church; by our indulgence for our future 
welfare, shall be profitable for the expenses of the same 
Church by the hand of those ruling it, forever."^ It was 

' See Tranxlafions and Reprints, vol. iv, No. 3. 



FEUDALISM 45 

usual in granting a fief to include the immunity, and such 
a combined grant reads : " We have decreed that so cmd so 
should have conceded to him such and such a place in its 
entirety, with the lands, houses, buildings, villeins, slaves, 
vineyards, woods, fields, meadows, pastures, waters or water- 
courses, grist-mills, additions, appurtenances, or any kind 
of men who are subjected to our Treasury who dwell there ; 
in entire immunity, and without the entrance of any one 
of the judges for the purpose of holding the pleas of any 
kind of causes. Thus he may have, hold and possess it in 
proprietary right and witliout expecting the entrance of 
any of the judges ; and may leave the possession of it to 
his posterity, by the aid of God, from our bounty, or to 
whom he will ; and by our permission he shall have free 
power to do whatever he may wish with it for the future."^ 
By the end of the ninth century feudalism had become 
established throughout the lands which had formed the 

Carolingian empire. Practically the whole ter- 
fbuda^lfsm ritory was divided into fiefs or benefices ; all 

freemen were either vassals or lords ; many 
were vassals and at the same time lords ; on almost every 
fief the possessor had the right of immunity. This condi- 
tion of affairs continued for several centuries. The period 
from the ninth to the fourteenth century is called fre- 
quently the age of feudalism. 

Generally a lord had a number of vassals, and these, 
together with their lord, or suzerain, formed a feudal group. 

When the vassals served as soldiers the feudal 
The^feudal group became an army ; in times of peace the 

group formed a little state. The lord, with the 
aid and advice of his vassals, administered justice and gov- 
erned the fief. The inhabitants of his lands owed service 
only to the lord ; except for the Church they were prac- 
tically free from all other authority. 



' See Translations and Reprints, vol. iv, No. 3. 



46 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Vassals. 



The villeins and 
serfs. 



The vassals were the most important class, but they 
formed only a small part of the population. They were 
all held to be noblemen and they were all war- 
riors ; consequently others had to support them. 
The others were the villeins and the serfs, who cultivated 
the soil, or who carried on the handicrafts and trade in the 
cities, and 
by their 
labor fur- 
nished the means of 
subsistence for the 
whole group. They 
were subject to the 
lord or vassal on whose 
estate they lived, and 
from whom they held 
their lands, but not by 
feudal tenure. For, 
instead of aiding in 
warfare or by coun- 
sel, they paid rent in 
money and produce and also worked for their lord. Their 
life will be described later.^ In addition to the nobles, 
who formed the ruling class and did the fighting, and 
the serfs in the country or towns, there was a third 
class in the community, the members of the clergy. Al- 
though they, as well as the inhabitants of the cities, be- 
longed originally either to the nobility or the 
peasantry, they were in some ways distinct from 
either. The chief officials of the Church were the equals of 
the nobility; the parish priests were in many respects the 
equals of the peasantry among whom they lived. But no 
impassable barrier existed between the Pope and the hum- 
blest member of the clergy. By ability the son of a serf 




Stone Hurler. 



Clergy. 



» See Chap. XIV. 



FEUDALISM 47 

might rise to be Pope. The Church was always democratic 
in theory and offered a chance for any bright boy to rise to 
the highest rank. 

Each vassal was obliged to do homage and take the 
oath of fealty to his lord. The act of homage was as fol- 
lows : " The count asked if he was willing to 
feTtJ?^^''^ become completely his man, and the other 
replied, ' I am willing ' ; and with clasped 
hands, surrounded by the hands of the count, the vassal 
and lord were bound together by a kiss." ^ Homage was 
followed and completed by the oath of fealty. " I promise 
on my faith that I will in future be faithful to Count Will- 
iam, and will observe my homage to him completely against 
all persons in good faith and without deceit."^ In addition 
the vassal usually gave to his lord some object as a visible 
symbol of his obligations— e. g., a weapon such as a sword 
or a lance, a horse, or some article of wearing apparel. 

In addition to the general obligation of faithful ser- 
vice contained in his oath of fealty, the vassal owed to his 
lord other very definite services. In the first 
Semces whicli j^^g j^g ^^^^^^^ g j^^ f^^. ^lim when summoned. 

the vassal owed, ^ _ _ ° _ 

Ordinarily he was obliged to serve at his own 
expense in the lord's army for forty days each year ; if the 
lord wished him to serve for a longer time the lord must 
pay his expenses. In case of a foreign war he was not 
obliged to serve outside of the kingdom after forty days 
were completed, unless he was willing to do so. In the 
second place the vassal must aid his lord in holding court. 
When he was summoned he must act as judge or assistant 
in trying cases. If he was engaged as plaintiff or defend- 
ant in a lawsuit he must take the suit to the lord's court 
and submit to the judgment of the lord and his own peers 
— i. e., his fellow vassals. In the third place the vassal 

' riomage and Fealty to the Cnunt of Flanders, a. d. 1127. See 
Translations and Reprints, vol. iv. No. 3. ' Ibid. 



48 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

must assist the lord with his advice. Whenever he was sum- 
moned he must go and, with the other vassals, form a coun- 
cil of state to deliberate on all questions of common interest. 
In theory the vassal was not supposed to be taxed by 
the lord, for, as a noble holding his fief by feudal tenure, 
he was free from all money payments. This 
was the great distinction between feudal or 
noble tenures and villein or ignoble tenures in which regu- 
lar payments had to be made. But cases might arise when 
the vassal was obliged to furnish his lord with money ; 
such payments were called aids and were always considered 
exceptional. The theory was that when the lord was in 
great need of money the vassal by the oath of fealty was 
obliged to aid him. The three customary aids everywhere 
were : 1. Contributions to pay the expenses incurred in 
knighting the lord's eldest son.^ 2. Contributions to fur- 
nish a dowry for the lord's eldest daughter. 3. Contribu- 
tions to pay the lord's ransom if he was made a prisoner. 
In addition, when it became the custom to go on a crusade, 
the vassal was expected to aid the lord in the cost of equip- 
ment for his journey. On some fiefs the vassal was also 
required to contribute toward the expense when his lord 
was summoned to visit the overlord or when the lord went 
on a pilgrimage to Eome. In England only the three cus- 
tomary aids were recognized. 

The lord was held by the feudal contract to certain 

obligations toward his vassal. The two most important 

were that he should see that his vassal re- 

Obligations of reived iust treatment, and that he should pro- 

the lord. . . . 

tect his vassal in the enjoyment of his fief. 

The lords granted fiefs for the purpose of securing 

service from their vassals. If a vassal died, leaving a 

son who was old enough, the latter received 
Eeliefi 

the fief, but he was expected to pay for the 

1 See Cliap. XIII. 



FEUDALISM 49 

privilege. This payment was called a relief, and frequently 
amounted to the income from the fief for one year. 

If, when the father died, the son was not yet of age, the 
lord managed the fief until the son became of age. During 
the interval the lord was expected to support 
the heir, but all the income from the fief was 
his. This arose from the fact that the fief owed to the lord 
the service of a full-grown man, and consequently when 
the heir was too young the income belonged to the lord. 

If the vassal left a widow or a daughter, and no sou, the 

widow or daughter passed under the control of the lord. 

He could give them in marriage to any one 

Control of whom he chose, for the fief must furnish a 

mamages. . i -i. i 

man for his service ; and if the widow, or heir- 
ess, were allowed to marry any one whom she chose, the 
fief might pass into the hands of an enemy, and the lord 
would thus be deprived of his just due. On the English 
Exchequer Rolls of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 
there were many items like the following : " Alice, countess 
of Warwick, renders account of £1,000 and 10 palfreys to 
be allowed to remain a widow as long as she pleases and 
not to be forced to marry by the king." 

" Hawisa, who was wife of William Fitz Robert, renders 
account of 130 marks and 4 palfreys that she may have 
peace from Peter of Borough to whom the king has given 
permission to marry her ; and that she may not be com- 
pelled to marry." ^ 

There were many minor obligations rising from the 
feudal relations, but it is unnecessary to attempt to describe 
them all. They varied in different countries 
sys em. ^^^^ different fiefs, for the most striking fact 
about feudalism is the great diversity in customs which ex- 
isted at the same time — there was no system. Further- 
more, there was no orderly hierarchy. The king might 

' See Translations and Reprints, vol. iv. 17^'. 3. 



50 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

hold a fief from one of his own subjects. A knight might 
hold a fief from a dozen different lords ; in such a case 
he owed obligations to all, but personal service to only 
one, who was called his liege lord. 

As is evident from the description that has been given, 
feudalism included a plan of government and a system of 
land-holding. A man's position in society was 
Use of the word g-^gjj ]^y j^jg feudal relations. So feudalism 
feudalism." ■ ^ -, ni- 

ls often used as a collective name for all the 

social and governmental relations which existed in western 
Europe from the ninth to the fourteenth century. The 
Church was no exception, as its lands were held feudally, 
and for each fief the abbot or bishop must furnish one or 
more soldiers to his lord. The surplus lands of the Church 
were granted to nobles as benefices or fiefs. The abbot or 
bishop on his fief performed all the duties that the lay lord 
performed under similar circumstances. In the cities espe- 
cially the bishops had feudal rights, holding the courts,' 
coining money, and taxing the merchants and artisans. 

Refekences 

Beginnings of the feudal system : Emerton, Introduction, chap. 
XV. Adams, Civilization, pp. 194-217. Feudal institutions : Emer- 
ton, Europe, chap. xiv. Adams, Civilisation, pp. 217-226. 



CHAPTER VI 

The German Kingdom (to 1122) 

Summary. — The early kings of Germany were occupied in making 
their power effective over the different tribes and in repelling invasions. 
Under Otto tJie Great both tasks had been so nearly accomplished that 
he turned his attention to Italy. The local conditions there made it 
easy for him to obtain the imperial crown. His son and grandson 
wasted the resources of Germany in attempting to rule Italy. The suc- 
ceeding kings were forced to devote their energies to reestablishing the 
royal authority in Germany. This was done so thoroughly that tiie 
power of Henry III was greater than that of any preceding king. In 
order to reform the Church he devoted much of his time to Italy. The 
papacy became strong, and endeavored to free the Church from all im- 
perial control. This led to the investiture struggle which weakened 
Germany and resulted in an indecisive compromise. 

By the treaty of Verdun, in 843, the separation of the 

empire into three kingdoms was recognized. Of these the 

East-Frankish, or German, seemed in some re- 

East-Frankish gpects the weakest, as its inhabitants were the 

kingdom, '^ -,.... 

least advanced m civilization and were divided 
into separate peoples — Saxons, Franconians, Alemanni or 
Swabians, and Bavarians. Each had its own distinctive 
customs, and at the head of each was a duke, who was its 
hereditary sovereign. Franconia and Saxony were the most 
powerful duchies. 

The last of the German Carolingians died 

9n 9^18 ^^ ^^^' ^"^ ^^^® ^^^^ ^^ Franconia, Conrad I, 

was chosen king by the nobles. But in his 

reign of seven years he was unable to make the other dukes 

obey him or to check the invasions of the Hungarians. On 

51 



52 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

his death-bed, realizing the need of a strong ruler, he desig- 
nated his most powerful rival and enemy as his successor. 

The latter, Henry I, called the Fowler, spent almost 
the whole of his reign in wars against the Slavs, Danes, 
Bohemians, Poles, Hungarians, and other in- 
mo'L^o vaders. On the frontiers of his kingdom he 

constructed many castles as places of refuge 
and centers of defense against sudden raids. He built and 
fortified so many towns that he was called Henry "the 
builder of cities." Instead of using foot-soldiers, he formed 
an army of light cavalry, which could move with great ra- 
pidity. In 933 he inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Hun- 
garians, who were the most dreaded of all the invaders. In 
a war with the king of France, Charles the Simple, he con- 
quered Lorraine. His successes in war made him both re- 
spected and feared by the dukes, so that in the last years 
of his life he was universally obeyed, and was the king of 
Germany in fact, as well as in name. 

Before his death Henry recommended the nobles to 
choose his son Otto for their king. Consequently the no- 
bles and bishops met at Aachen and proclaimed 
ggg° g'„3 Otto, " projiosed by his father, chosen by God, 

and made king by the princes." At first the 
dukes were submissive to the new king, but as they were 
anxious to regain their former independence they engaged 
in frequent rebellions. Otto conquered the dukes and, in 
order to prevent future rebellions, took away some of their 
powers. Moreover, he did not allow the people to choose 
their own dukes, but took the appointment into his own 
hands. He also created new officials, the counts palatine, 
whose duty it was to watch over the king's interest and to 
keep an eye on the dukes. 

Otto gave the most important bishoprics to his own 
relatives, and drew the leading members of the Church 
into the service of the state. His brother Bruno was made 
archbishop of Cologne, and many of his most important 



1 



54 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Otto and the 
Church. 



officials were bishops or abbots. His policy in the govern- 
ment of Germany was to increase the power and wealth of 
the clergy in order to offset the power of the 
dukes. On the other hand, he insisted that 
the clergy should perform all their duties as 
feudal lords; as the bishops and abbots held fiefs they 
were obliged to lead their vassals to the royal army and to 
assist the king with their advice and contributions when- 
ever their aid was needed. 

The first twenty years of 
his reign were occupied main- 
ly in organizing 
Defeat of i • i • i i 

Hungarians. ^}^^ kingdom and 
in checking in- 
vasions. The dukes, in their 
revolts, had sought aid from 
the Hungarians, and in 954 
a great invasion had swept 
over the whole breadth of 
the kingdom. In 955, on the 
banks of the river Lech, Ot- 
to annihilated a Hungarian 
army, and his victory was so 
decisive that their incursions 
ceased. 

His successes made his 
power secure in his own king- 
dom ; but Otto was ambitious and the condition 
of affairs in Italy led him to seek the imperial 
crown. For a century the title of emperor 
had been held by unimportant rulers who had received 
this dignity from the hands of the Pope ; but no one of 
them had possessed any real authority outside of his own 
petty kingdom. In Italy, as elsewhere, the real power was 
in the hands of feudal nobles. Most of the south was 
nominally in subjection to the eastern empire, but portions 




Otto the Great and his Wife, 
Edith. 



Conditions in 
Italy. 



I 



THE GERMAN KINGDOM 55 

of it had been conquered by the Saracens. At Eome rival 
nobles fought for the control of the city, and the success- 
ful party treated the papacy as a part of the spoils. 

In 951 the aid of Otto was sought by one of the con- 
tending parties. He made an expedition into Italy, but 
before much was accomplished he was called back to Ger- 
many by a rebellion. In 961 he made a second expedition, 
and was crowned at Milan with the iron crown ^ of Lom- 
bardy. He then proceeded to Eome, which he entered with- 
out opposition, and on February 2, 962, was 
eT^T^^ crowned emperor of the Roman Empire. By 
the men of his day he was regarded as the suc- 
cessor of Augustus, Trajan, Constantine, and Charles the 
Great. But the empire was something very different from 
the old Eoman Empire or the empire of Charles. It was 
a union of Italy and Germany, and is best described as 
the Eoman Empire of the German nation. Still, much of 
the prestige of the old Eoman Empire survived, and the 
emperor was regarded in western Europe as the head of 
the Christian world. 

His son and grandson, Otto II and Otto III, spent most 
of their time in Italy endeavoring to make Eome their 
Otto II capital and to rule as emperors. They neg- 

873-982! Otto lected Germany to a great extent, using it 
III, 983-1002. jjig^i^iy as a source of supplies from which to 
draw men and money for their Italian campaigns. Conse- 
quently, Germany suffered again from the invasions of the 
Danes and Slavs. Hungary, which had been subject to 
Otto the Great, became an independent kingdom. The 
German nobles began new rebellions, and the country was 
a prey to private warfare. 

„ „ Henry II and Conrad II, who were kings 

1002-1024, in succession after Otto III, instead of being 

' So called because it was said to contain a circular band made out 
of a nail from the cross on which Christ was crucified. 



56 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

dazzled by a dream of ruling as Eoman emperors, tried to 
be strong kings in Germany. Each one at the beginning 
of his reign had to put down rebellious of the nobles, and 
had great difficulty in preventing private wars among his 
vassals. Each one was crowned emperor at Rome after 
he had succeeded in establishing order at 
102T-1039 home. Conrad II added the kingdom of Bur- 
gundy to the German possessions, and made 
the king's power so fully respected that his son was not 
troubled by rebellions. 

The latter, Henry III, was able, pious, and successful. 
He made Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary subject nations, 
and under his rule Germany became stronger 
1039^1056 tlian ever before. He worked earnestly to raise 
the clergy to a higher moral standard, and en- 
couraged education and the development of the arts. Hav- 
ing succeeded so well at home, he turned his attention to 
Italy. That country, left mainly to itself by the preceding 
kings, was in an evil plight. Eome, in particular, was given 
over to the rule of unprincipled men, and unworthy popes 
had disgraced the apostolic see. In 1046 there were three 
rival popes, each of whom claimed to be the successor of 
St. Peter. Henry caused all three to be deposed and a Ger- 
man bishop to be elected in their stead, and during the re- 
maining years of his reign he nominated the popes. Un- 
fortunately for his aims and for the prosperity of Germany, 
he died in the prime of life when he was only thirty-nine 
years old, and left as his heir a boy of six, Henry IV. 

The rebellions in Germany began again, as the nobles 
sought to regain their former independence. The queen- 
„ ^„ mother who had acted as regent lost all power 

Henry IV, . . . . -,■ ■ 

1056-1106, and iiiid withdrew from all participation in politics 
the Saxons. qj. government, and the nobles who ruled in 
the name of the king aroused bitter enmity by unwise ac- 
tions. The inhabitants of Saxony were especially dis- 
contented, partly on account of actual wrongs and partly 



THE GERMAN KINGDOM 57 

because of dangers which they imagined. Henry, having 
reached the age of manhood, was ruling in his own name 
when the storm broke. The Saxons rose in such a sudden, 
unexpected revolt that the king, who was in their land, 
barely escaped with his life. Many of the other nobles 
joined the Saxons, and the rebellion became so formidable 
that Henry Avas forced to treat with the rebels and to sub- 
mit to humiliating conditions, in February, 1074. But at 
the moment when his position was most desperate the pros- 
perous cities in the Rhine valley declared for him, and he 
was able to induce the nobles in the south of Germany to 
remain neutral. Even then he had to agree that all the 
royal fortresses in Saxony should be destroyed by the Sax- 
ons themselves. The Saxons razed the fortresses, dese- 
crated the royal tombs, and destroyed a church. Their vio- 
lence and sacrilege aided the king, who was able, in Oc- 
tober, 1074, to raise an army and to gain a great victory 
over them. They were obliged to submit to Henry and 
to accept his conditions. His power was recognized, al- 
though unwillingly on the part of some, in every part of 
Germany, so that for the first time he was king in fact as 
well as in name. 

Just at this time, when he was glorying in his victory, 
he was suddenly called to face a new danger and to begin a 
struggle which lasted the rest of his life. In 
Ohurch°^ ® order to understand his position it is necessary 
to go back and to trace the history of the 
papacy since 1046. After causing the unworthy claimants 
to be deposed, Henry III had nominated one German Pope 
after another. All had worked for the reform of the 
Church and had been aided by Henry. They had found 
the Church offices filled with bishops, abbots, and priests 
who were guilty of simony ^- — that is, they had secured 

' Simony is coined from the name of Simon Magus, who attempted 
to buy from the apostles the power of bestowing the gift of the Holy 
Ghost. See Acts, chap, viii, verses 9-24. 



58 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



their positions by purchase either directly or indirectly. 
The Church was so wealthy and had such great power that 
its offices were sought by ambitious and greedy men. Even 
worthy and honorable men bought positions, hoping to be 




German Tapestey, Tenth to Twelfth Century. 



able through their offices to work reform. The kings and 
nobles often had great influence in the appointment to 
Church positions, and gave these to their favorites or sold 
them to the highest bidder. Simony was the greatest evil 
in the Church. 



THE GERMAN KINGDOM 59 

During his lifetime Henry III and the popes worked 
together to reform and strengthen the Church ; after his 

death the popes and their advisers continued 
oif OT^^Vil *^^® ^^^^^ course. Hildebrand was the most 

zealous and able of the reform party. Of 
humble birth, he had been educated in a monastery and 
had entered the service of the Church ; by his ability he 
had risen rapidly until he was made a cardinal and placed 
in charge of the papal treasury. He had great influence 
in all matters of papal policy, and finally in 1074 was made 
Pope, taking the name of Gregory VII. He made every 
effort to root out simony from the Church. In order to do 

this he felt it essential to take away from lay- 

kr^nveSe* ^^^^ ^^^ P^^®^ ^^ *^^® appointment of church 
oflBcials. Consequently he issued a decree for- 
bidding lay investiture — i. e., taking away from all laymen 
the power to invest a priest with his clerical office or to 
bestow any position in the Church. This was a direct blow 
at the power of Henry IV, who had been making these 
appointments Just as his predecessor had done. Further- 
more, the leading bishops of Germany were also the prin- 
cipal officers of the state and held some of the most exten- 
sive and most important fiefs in the kingdom. If the king 
could exercise no control over their selection a large part 
of his power would be taken away. The real difficulty was 
due to the twofold position of the bishops who were serv- 
ants of both the Church and the state. 

Henry, flushed with pride by his victory over the Saxons 

and the great power which he had won, was intensely angry 

when he received the news of the Pope's action. 

Henry's answer, tt i , /-t j> • ± • i • 

He wrote to Gregory, refusing to recognize him 
as Pope and ordering him to relinquish the office which 
he had seized wrongfully. At the same time he caused all 
the bishops, whom he had summoned to a council, to write 
a similar letter. 

Gregory rei)lied by excommunicating Henry. This ex- 



60 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

communication caused the rebellions in Germany to begin 
again, as many of tlie king's subjects considered that they 

were released by the Pope from their oath of 
tion°^^nr''^' allegiance. Henry was soon deserted by almost 

all the leading nobles and bishops, for many 
of the latter had signed the letter to Gregory only under 
compulsion. The king attempted in vain to regain his 
power ; the most that he could secure was a period of 
delay from the nobles who had proposed to depose him. 
Finally it was agreed that he should live as a private citizen 
until he was released from the ban of excommunication ; if 
he was not absolved within a year he was to be deposed and 
a new king elected. 

Gregory and the nobles entered into an agreement to 
take no action except in common. The Pope promised to 

come to Germany and there decide upon the 

course to be pursued with relation to Henry. 
The latter was determined to save his crown at any cost 
and feared to have the nobles and the Pope meet. Accord-- 
ingly he determined to set off in the dead of winter to cross 
the Alps and seek absolution from Gregory. He escaped 
by stealth from the careless guardianship of the nobles and 
hastened to Canossa, where Gregory had stopped on his way 
to Germany. There the king was compelled to remain 
outside the castle gate for three days before he could get 
an audience with the Pope. Each day, wearing a " peni- 
tent's shirt," he stood for several hours, proclaiming his 
repentance and begging for absolution. No king of Ger- 
many had ever suffered such a humiliation. At length 
the Pope freed him from the ban of excommunication. 

Now that he was released from the Church's 
^ru^X^*^*"^ censure, Henry soon secured support both in 

Italy and Germany. The "investiture strug- 
gle " dragged on for half a century, as neither Pope nor 
king would abandon what he believed to be his rights. 
Gregory VII, who died in exile, is reported to have said, 



THE GERMAN KINGDOM 61 

"I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, there- 
fore I die in exile." The sons of Henry revolted against 
him ; the king died, deserted by all, and his body lay for 
five years without Christian burial. Henry V, one of the 

sons who had revolted against him, after ob- 
iioehii'25 taining the kingdom, took the same position 

in regard to the question of investiture that 
his father had done. Germany was almost ruined by the 
fighting between the contending parties, for in every por- 
tion of the land the people were divided into two hostile 
camps. Anti-kings and anti-popes were elected. Nobles 
were arrayed against the peasants and the inhabitants of the 
cities. The parish priests, as a rule, sided with the king ; the 
bishops with the Pope. Members of the same family were 
armed against one another. 

Finally, in 1122, Henry V and Pope Calixtus II agreed 
upon a compromise, known as the Concordat of Worms. 

The bishops everywhere were to be elected by 
Concordat of ^]^g clergy and not to be appointed by the king ; 

but in Germany the elections were to take 
place in the king's presence, and in case of disputed elec- 
tions he was given practically the power of decision. After 
the election the bishops were to be invested by Henry with 
their feudal rights. The election of bishops in Burgundy 
and Italy was to be wholly free from any interference on 
the part of the king. The real importance of this compro- 
mise lay in the fact that the Pope and the king endeav- 
ored to distinguish between the various duties of bishops. 
The Church was to elect its own officials ; the king was 
not to invest them with their spiritual offices, but only with 
their lay fiefs. The Pope had gained a part of what he 
desired ; Henry had lost some of the powers exercised by 
former kings. This ended the investiture struggle. 



62 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



References 

Otto the Great as Emperor: Henderson, Oermany in the Middle 
Ages (New York, 1894), pp. 134-138. German Empire at Height of 
Power: Tout, Empire and Papacy (New York, 1898), chap. iii. 
Henry III and Conditions in Germany : Henderson, Germany^ i)p. 
174-176. The Empire and Papacy: Adams, Civilization, chap. x. 
Investiture Struggle : Tout, chap, vi ; Bryce, Holy Roman Eminre, 
pp. 157-160. Documents Relating to Investiture Struggle: Hen- 
derson, (Select Documents (New York, 1892), pp. 365-409. 



Kings op Germany, 887-1125 



Arnulf, 887-899. 

Lewis, the Child, 899-911. 

Conrad I, 911-918. 

Henry I, the Fowler, 918-936. 

Otto I, the Great, 936-978. 

Otto II, 973-983. 



Otto III, 983-1002. 

Henry II, the Saint, 1002-1024. 

Conrad II, the Salic, 1024-1039. 

Henry III, the Black, 1039-1056. 

Henry IV, 1056-1106. 

Henry V, 1106-1125. 



Popes, 795-1124 



S. Leo III, 795-816. 
Stephen IV, 816-817. 
S. Paschal I, 817-824. 
Eugenius II, 824-827. 
Valentinus, 827. 
Gregory IV, 827-844. 
Sergius II, 844-847. 
S. Leo IV, 847-855. 
Benedict III. 855-858. 
S. Nicholas I. 858-867. 
Hadrian II, 867-872. 
John VIII, 872-882. 
Marinus I, 882-884. 
Hadrian III. 884-885. 
Stephen VI, 885-891. 
Porraosus, 891-896. 
Boniface VI, 896. 
Stephen VI, 896-897. 
Romanus, 897. 
Theodore II, 897. 
John IX, 898-900. 



Benedict IV, 900-903. 
Leo V, 903. 
Christopher. 903-904. 
Sergius III, 904-911. 
Anastasius III. 911-913. 
Lando, 913-914. 
John X, 914-928. 
Leo VI, 928-929. 
Stephen VII, 929-931. 
John XI, 931-936. 
Leo YIII, 936-939. 
Stephen VIII, 939-942. 
Marinus II. 942-946. 
Agapitiis II, 946-955. 
John XII, 955-964. 
Leo VIII, 963-965. 
Benedict V, 964. 
John XIII, 965-972. 
Benedict VI. 972-974. 
Benedict VII, 974-983. 
John XIV, 983-984. 



THE GERMAN KINGDOM 



03 



Boniface VII (974), 984-985. 
John XV, 985-99G. 
Gregory V, 996-999. 
Silvester IL 999-1003. 
John XVII, 1003. 
John XVIII, 1003-1009. 
Sergius IV, 1009-1012. 
Benedict VIII, 1012-1024. 
' John XIX, 1024-1033. 
Benedict IX, 1033-1048. 
Gregory VI, 1045-1046. 
Clement II, 1046-1047. 
Damasus, 1048. 



S. Leo IX, 1048-1054. 
Victor II, 1054-1057. 
Stephen X, 1057-1058. 
Benedict X, 1058-1060. 
Nicholas II, 1059-1061. 
Alexander II, 1061-1073. 
S. Gregory VII, 1073-1085. 
Victor III, 1086-1087. 
Urban II, 1088-1099. 
Paschal II, 1099-1118. 
GelasiusII, 1118-1119. 
CalixtusII, 1119-1124. 



CHAPTER VII 

The Kingdom of France (to 1108) 

Summary. — The early kings of France were weak, and were unable 
to repel the invaders. The last Carolingians had no effective authority, 
and the kingship was rendered still more impotent by the long contest 
between the Carolingians and Capetians. The Northmen had to be 
bribed by the duchy of Normandy, and the Flemish cities became almost 
independent. The early Capetians were enabled by a number of favor- 
able cii'cumstances to retain their power, but made little actual advance 
before 1108. 

The kingdom guaranteed to Charles the Bald, son of 
Lewis the Pious, by the treaty of Verdun corresponded 
^ , „ roughly to modern France, although it was nar- 
Charies the rower from east to west and somewhat longer 
Bald, 843-877. Iyoiw north to south. But only a small part of 
the country was actually under Charles's power. Brittany 
refused to recognize him, and when he attempted to con- 
quer it he met with repeated defeats. Finally he was forced 
to recognize its independence, and his son, in 856, married 
the daughter of the king of Brittany. In the south, Septi- 
mania and Aquitaine were nearly as independent ; even in 
the north he had constant trouble in maintaining his power. 
Moreover, the country suffered greatly from invasions, for 
the Northmen ravaged his territory, burning the towns and 

monasteries, and laying waste the fields. 
Charles and the j^ gp^^g ^f ^\^q difficulties in his kingdom, 

Charles cherished ambitious plans of conquer- 
ing Lorraine and Italy, and sought to obtain the imperial 
crown ; consequently he was forced to make continual con- 
64 



THE KINGDOM OP FRANCE 65 

cessions to his nobles, whose aid he needed. He granted as 
fiefs almost all the lands in the royal domain,^ and in favor 
of the nobles he made the capitulary of Mersen.^ 

The bishops and abbots, too, were striving constantly to 
increase their power and to free themselves from their feu- 
dal duties, so that Charles was compelled to make large 
grants to the Church in order to retain their sui)j)ort. 

The result of these repeated grants was to transfer all 

the actual power to the nobles and clergy. Even the counts, 

who were theoretically the king's representa- 

Weaknessof tives, had succeeded in making their offices 
Charles. 

hereditary, and exercised their power wholly 
for their own advantage. The king was obliged to buy or 
beg the services of his vassals, who were practically inde- 
pendent of him. In spite of the imperial title, which he 
held in his last years, Charles had little real authority. 
As king, he had merely a vague overlordship of his king- 
dom ; as emperor, he had neither army nor income to main- 
tain his pretensions. He could not even protect his sub- 
jects from the turbulent nobles or the Northmen. 

His successors were equally weak. His son, Louis the 
Stammerer, had great difficulty in obtaining the title of 

king, and reigned for only two years. Two 

The successors m-andsons of Charles the Bald reigned together 
of Charles, ^ „ , , ^ '^ , . , .^ 

for a few years, but the last one died m 884, 
leaving no heir but a younger brother, five years of age, who 
was known later as Charles the Simple. Charles the Fat, 
the son of Lewis the German, was then the only other 
legitimate descendant, in the male line, of Charles the 
Great. He was already emperor and king of Germany and 
Italy ; now he received the vacant throne of the West 
Frankish kingdom, which will be referred to hereafter as 
France. But he was so weak that he aroused the contempt 

^ The royal domain was the land under the immediate control of 
the king, from which he obtained most of his income. ^ See p. 38. 



66 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

of all his subjects ; finally, when he bought off the North- 
men, who were besieging Paris, by giving them permission 
to plunder elsewhere in his kingdom, the nobles rebelled 
and deposed him in 887. 

After the deposition of Charles the Fat, as there was still 
no Carolingian of full age, " the people, by common consent, 
chose as their king, Duke Eudes, an energetic 
Kolertiau man, who, by his beauty, by his stature, by his 

great strength, and by his wisdom, surpassed 
all the others. He ruled ably, and was indefatigable in 
fighting against the Northmen, who were making constant 
raids." This is the description given of Eudes by a con- 
temporary abbot, and the last sentence points out the most 
important service which he performed. His father, Eobert 
the Strong, was a man of obscure origin,^ who had secured 
power by defending his neighbors from the Northmen ; 
Eudes had been the hero of the defense of Paris in 886, 
before Charles the Fat bought off the invaders. 

The history of the kings in France during the succeed- 
ing century is composed mainly of the struggles between 
the Carolingian and Eobertian houses. When Eudes died, 
Charles the Simple, a posthumous son of Louis the Stam- 
merer, was recognized as king. He had little power, and 
the kingdom was wrested from him in 923 by a member of 
the Eobertian house. In 936 his son, Louis d'Outremer,~ 
was summoned by the nobles to be their king ; but he and 
his successors were very weak. His great rival was Hugh, 
" Duke of France," a descendant of Eobert the Strong. 
Hugh had joined in the summons to Louis, but soon be- 
came hostile, and stripped him of a great part of his posses- 
sions. In 948 Louis was reduced to such straits that he 

' Possibly a Saxon. In later times it was believed that he was the 
son of a Parisian butcher. 

''Louis "from beyond the sea" was so named because ofter his 
father's deposition he had been taken by his mother to the court of her 
brother, king of the Anglo-Saxons. 



THE KINGDOM OF PRANCE 6Y 

had to appeal for aid at a church council to King Otto I 

of Germany. "Hugh recalled me from the foreign land 

where I was living in exile, and, with the con- 

CaroUngians ggj-^^ ^f ^\\ ]jg made me king, but he left in my 

and Capetians, n ,, ., » x n- n i 

power only the city of Laon. . . . ±'inaily he 
aroused pirates to seize me by treason. ... He cast me 
into a dungeon and kept me there for a year. . . . Laon 
was my only fortress, the only asylum which I had for 
my wife and children ; but what could I do ? I preferred 
my life to a castle ; I sacrificed the castle for my liberty. 
Now, to-day, despoiled of everything, I implore the aid of 
all. If the duke should dare to contradict me, I am ready 
to fight him in single combat." ^ With the aid of Otto he 
secured Laon again, but his son and grandson were as weak 
as he had been. 

On the death of the grandson of Louis, in 987, Hugh 
Capet,- duke of France, was chosen king. From the 

feeble Carolingian line the kingship was trans- 

?^f\?^^®*' ferred to the holder of the most important fief 
987-996. 

in the kingdom, and the descendants of Hugh 

Capet continued on the throne for eight hundred years. 
But before following the fortunes of the Capetians certain 
events of the tenth century must be described. 

The most important was the creation of the duchy of 
Normandy. In 911 Charles the Simple granted the nucleus 
of the later duchy to Eollo, leader of the North- 
Duchy of jjjQ^-^ . j^i- |.|-jg game time he gave Eollo permis- 

Normandy. . . , . , 

sion to plunder Brittany. He did thus m order 
to protect the rest of the kingdom from the ravages of the 
Northmen, and in this he was successful. Eollo was bap- 

' Prom the history of Richer, a monk who lived in the last half of 
the tenth century. 

^ So called from the cape or cope which he wore as lay-abbot of a 
monastery. Robertian and Capctian are both used to desicrnate the 
descendants of Eudes. Robertian from Robert the Strong, Capetian 
from Hugh Capet. 



68 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



tized, and many of his followers also became Christians. 
In order to reward his followers he divided with them the 
land which he had received, reserving for himself the lion's 
share. Normandy, as his land was called, flourished and in- 
creased in territory under his rule ; Northmen and inhabi- 





ijp mm f^rS^ 



Part of a Charter of Hugh Capet. 

tants of the neighboring districts repeopled the land which 
had been deserted. " He forced his subjects to live together 
in peace ; he rebuilt the churches, renewed and strengthened 
the walls of the cities and the fortifications," ^ so that under 
his successors the duchy prospered greatly. The Northmen 
in Normandy kept up a close connection with the north 
and frequently received aid thence. This increased their 
power, but gave them an evil name in the rest of France, 
where the dukes were often styled " chiefs of the pirates." 
They supported the Eobertian or Capetian house during 
all its strife with the Carolingians. Gradually the Nor- 
mans gave up their pagan customs and became very devout 
Christians ; but for centuries they retained their love of 
wandering and adventure. 

Another important event of this period was the rise of 
the Flemish cities. The constant attacks of the North- 
men, especially of those who had settled on the islands 



' William of Jumieges, a Norman writer of the first half of the 
eleventh century. 



THE KINGDOM OP FRANCE 69 

near the mouth of the Scheldt, forced the inhabitants to 

seek refuge in the remains of the old Eoman fortifications. 

These were rebuilt, strengthened, and enlarged, 

Rise of the .^^^^ ^^^ |.]-^gjj. g^^gg ^^ie cities of Flanders grew 

Flemish cities. . " 

up. The inhabitants, by living together, were 
forced into a community of interests, and under the leader- 
ship of the local nobles became redoubtable foes. In their 
dangers and quarrels with one another they sought aid from 
the kings of France and Germany and from the leading 
counts and dukes, but were to a great extent independent. 
The poverty of the Carolingians has been referred to 
already ; the last kings of this house had only Laon and a 

few small towns under their actual power. The 
Sr^retfans ^apetian house had been very wealthy, but in 

their long struggle with the Carolingians the 
dukes had been obliged to buy aid and soldiers by granting 
one fief after another. The holders of these fiefs became 
more and more independent, so that when Hugh Capet be- 
came king he had under his immediate control only a small 
portion of the lands which had formed the duchy of France 
fifty years before. The real heirs of the royal authority 
were the feudal nobles who were exercising almost all of 
the royal prerogatives on their fiefs. Hugh Capet was 
elected June 1, 987, and shortly afterward crowned "king 
of the Gauls, of the Britons, of the Danes [Xormans], of 
the Aquitanians, of the Goths,^ of the Spaniards, and of 
the Gascons." In spite of this elaborate title, his real 
power was not great. The diminished territories of his 
family he was compelled to diminish still more in order to 
secure aid to maintain his position. His son and grandson 
were even less successful, and could not prevent their vas- 
sals from erecting hostile fortresses almost on the royal 
domain. In order to obtain provisions for the royal court, 
it had to be moved from one estate to another, and, in ad- 



' Inhabitants of Gothia. 



70 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

dition, the king had to exercise his prerogative as a feudal 
lord to demand lodgings and provisions from his vassals. 

In fact, the men of that day looked upon the king 
mainly as a feudal overlord ; as has been said, the kingship 
had been annexed to the most important fief. 
Position of the rpj^^ king had a right to demand only feudal 
duties from his subjects ; and these the vassals 
would fulfil or not, according to their inclination and 
strength. But the Capetians themselves never lost wholly 
from their view the old kingship with its absolute power. 
The history of the Capetian house in the first three centu- 
ries is a long struggle on the part of the kings to use their 
feudal rights so as to transform their position into an abso- 
lute monarchy. Naturally, all of them did not have this 
clearly in mind, and progress was very slow ; but viewing 
their history as a whole, it is possible to see the progress 
which they made. 

They had several things in their favor. First of all, 
they had usually the support of the Church, which believed 
in centralized • government, longed for peace, 
circumst^ance ; ^^^^ realized the need of repressing feudal an- 
support from archy. When the kings incurred the hostility 
^° ' and opposition of the Church it was because 
of their transgression of the laws of the Church, especially 
with regard to marriage. 

Secondly, there were several long reigns ; for a period 
of over three hundred years each king had a son to succeed 
him ; and in all but two instances the son was 
ong reigns. ^ full-grown man at the time of his father's 
death, so that the evils of a minority were avoided. In 
order to render the succession certain all the early Cape- 
tians had their sons crowned during their own lifetime. 
Thus Hugh associated his son Robert with him in the king- 
ship the very year that he himself received the crown. In 
this way the kingship gradually came to be regarded as 
hereditary and not elective, as in the earlier days. 



THE KINGDOM OP FRANCE 



Tl 



Officials of 
humble birth 



The kings avoided placing authority in the hands of the 
nobles, and chose as their agents men of humble birth, who 
owed everything to them. These were selected 
generally from the members of the clergy, who 
alone were educated and, because of their celi- 
bacy, could found no families which might become dan- 
gerously j)owerful. 

Lastly, the prestige of the old idea of kingship aided 
them. They associated as equals with the kings of Ger- 
many, and outside of their immediate domains 
Prestige of the ]-,.^(j greater respect, although no more real 

kmgship. ° ... 

power, than among their immediate vassals. 

The first four Capetians accomplished little. Hugh 
succeeded in holding his kingdom against the Carolingian 
.^ , , claimant. Eobert II conquered Burgundy ; but 
Capetians this Valuable addition to the royal territory 

accomplished. ^.^g g^Qj^ jpg^^ f^j. ^}^g next king, Henry I, 

granted it to his brother in order to secure his own posi- 
tion as king. Under Henry I the power of the king de- 
clined rapidly, yet in spite 
of his weakness Henry at- 
tempted to claim Lorraine 
from Henry III of Germany. 
The French kings never 
ceased to desire this ter- 
ritory and to assert their 
claims to it. Hitherto the 
old friendship and alliance 
between the Capetians and 
the dukes of Xormandy had 
been continuous ; but now 
Henry was alarmed at the 
position which the Xorman 

duke had attained, and attempted to conquer him. But 
Duke William, later the conqueror of England (1066), was 
an abler general than Henry, and inflicted two disastrous 




Seal of Hexey I. 



12 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

defeats upon the latter. Philip I ' succeeded in adding 
some fiefs to the royal domain. He endeavored also to 
weaken the duke of Normandy, who had become king of 
England also, by stirring up strife in his family and sup- 
porting rebellions against his power. This policy, which 
he initiated, became the traditional policy of the Capetians 
in their relations with the dukes of JS'ormandy. 

No one of these kings was feeble in character; their 

weakness was due mainly to the circumstances in which 

they were placed. They had no resources ex- 

Why they were ^.^p^ such as they could draw from their corn- 
weak. ^ . "^ 

paratively small estates, or could obtain from 

the good-will of the barons. From their farms they got 

grain ; from their vineyards, wine ; from their forests, game, 

which they themselves killed ; from their immediate vassals 

and from the churches and monasteries on their domain, 

they exacted " aids " in money ; these were practically their 

only sources of income. But they retained their kingship 

and laid the foundation for the development in the twelfth 

century. In addition, during the last quarter of Philip's 

long reign, the crusade " took out of France many of the 

turbulent nobles and dangerous characters, thus making it 

easier for the king to rule. 

References 

France under Last Carolingians and Early Caiietians : Tout, chap, 
iv. The Normans in France : Johnson, Normans, chaps, iii, iv, v, 
vii, viii, and xi. The First Four Capetian Kings : Masson, Mediecal 
Frnnce (New York, 1893), chap, i; Enierton, Europe, pp. 398-420; 
Adams, French Nation (New York, 1897); Hassall, French People 
(New York, 1901), chap. iv. 

1 This name was introduced into the Capetian house through the 
marriage of Henry I with a Russian princess whose family claimed 
descent from Philip of Macedon. 

2 See Chap. XI. 



THE KINGDOM OF PRANCE 



Kings of France, 843-1108 



Charles the Bald, 843-881. 

Charles the Fat, 881-887. 

Eudes, 888-898. 

Charles the Simple, 898-923. 

Robert I, 923. 

Rudolf of Burgundy, 923-936. 

Louis IV, cfOutremer, 93G-954. 



Lotluiir, 954-986. 

Louis V, le Faineant, 980-987. 

Hugh Capet, 987-996. 

Robert II, the Pious, 996-1031. 

Henry I, 1031-1060. 

Philip I, 1060-1108. 



CHAPTER VIII 

England (to 1135) 

Summary. — The history of England differs from the history of other 
countries conquered by Germans. Almost all traces of Roman civiliza- 
tion disappeared. For four centuries a varying number of petty king- 
doms contended for the supremacy. The Danish invasions caused them 
to become united for a time in self-defense. But the real unity was 
brought about by the Norman conquest, which brought England into 
close connection with the Continent and had other important conse- 
quences. 

The history of England during the early centuries of 
the middle ages is very different from that of the other coun- 
History of Eng- tries into which the Germans migrated. Else- 
land different where, as indicated in the introductory chapter, 
other German ^^^^ Germans adopted many of the customs of 
conquests. the conquered peoples. In all of the other 

countries the invaders were far less numerous than the 
natives among whom they settled ; consequently many Eo- 
man institutions survived and the Latin language became 
the basis of the modern speech. In England, on the con- 
trary, the Anglo-Saxons introduced their own institutions 
and their own language ; only a few English words can be 
traced to the Celtic, the language of the original inhabit- 
ants. It does not seem probable that the invaders exter- 
minated all of the conquered peoples, but they subjugated 
them so completely that the latter had practically no influ- 
ence upon the conquerors. 

From the fifth to the eighth centuries the Anglo-Saxons 
in Britain formed petty kingdoms of small extent. These 



ENGLAND 



Y5 



Supremacy of 
Wessex. 



were constantly at strife with one another, and the history 

of the period, so far as it is known, is almost entirely a 

record of the wars waged by the rival kings. 

Anglo-Saxon j^^ ^-j^g seventh century there were seven or 

kingdoms. •' 

eight separate kingdoms. The only bond of 
union was to be found in the Christian Church, which held 
national councils attended by the leading men from all the 
different kingdoms. 

The king of Northumbria seems to have exercised a cer- 
tain amount of power over the other kings in the latter part 
of the seventh century. In the eighth, the king- 
dom of Mercia, especially under Offa (755-794), 
was supreme. At the beginning of the ninth 
the leadership passed to Wessex, whose king, Egbert (802- 
837), favored by the alliance of Charles the Great, conquered 
the greater part of England and part of Wales. During his 
lifetime he succeeded in driving off the Danes when they 
made attacks upon the coast, 
but after his death the suprem- 
acy of Wessex was imperiled 
by their invasions. 

In 850, for the first time, 
the Danes remained over win- 
ter in England on 
the Isle of Thanet. 
In 867 all of the 
vikings who had been plunder- 
ing the western coast of En- 
rope joined together for an 
attack upon the English, who 

made a brave resistance. " This year [871] nine general bat- 
tles were fought against the army^ in the kingdom south of 
the Thames, besides which, Alfred, the king's brother, and 



Danes attack 
England. 




Fibula found in Abingdon. 



' The Danes. This is the term used for them after 867 by the 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, from which this and the following quotations 
are taken. 



Y6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

single ciildormen, and king's tliMncs/ oftentimes made in- 
cnrsions on them, which were not counted ; and within the 
year nine earls and one king were slain." 

The king who was slain was Ethelred, whom his brother 
Alfred succeeded. For a time the Danes were successful 
everywhere, subduing Mercia and Northum- 
871 901, bria, and compelling Alfred to retreat " to the 

and the Danes, -^yoot^^g and to the fastiiesses of the moors." 
From his fortress which he built at Athelney he made re- 
peated attacks upon the Danes. " Finally, being joined by 
the men of three shires, he fought against all the army and 
put it to flight." After a siege of two weeks the Danes were 
compelled to surrender their fortress, to take oath to leave 
Alfred's kingdom, and to promise to be baptized. This was 
the celebrated peace of Wedmore," by which the land was 
divided between Alfred and the Danes. Alfred retained 
only Wessex, Sussex, Kent, and half of Mercia ; the rest of 
England was surrendered to the Danes and became known 
as Danelaw^ or land under the law of the Danes. In 893 he 
had to confront a fresh invasion of the Danes, but after about 
three years of continuous fighting he was again victorious. 

In order to be ready to repel a Danish invasion at any 
time, Alfred ordered that in each district one-half of the 
men sliould always be ready to march at a mo- 
Alfred's re- nient's notice, while the other half should cul- 
forms. ' 

tivate the soil. He built a navy to attack the 
Danes upon the water, and was the first English king to 
defeat them on their own element. Besides providing for 
the defense of his land, he strove earnestly to improve its 
government. He gathered together and published a code 
of laws which consisted for the most part of such old laws 
and customs as seemed to him suitable, with a very few 
additions of his own. 

' Nobles who held land directly from the king. After the Norman 
conquest, baron was used instead of thane. 
"^ Really should be treaty of Chippenham. 










LoDg'itude Eaat 



78 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

Before all else Alfred was a teacher and was anxious to 
educate his subjects. He had been a lover of books from 

his youth up and realized the importance of 
education"^ learning. But the Danes had destroyed many 

01 the books in the monasteries and most of the 
schools had been closed for years, so that there were only a 
very few men in the kingdom who could read or write. Al- 
fred gathered together at his court learned men from his 
own kingdom and other lands and established schools for 
his subjects. Moreover, for the education of his people he 
translated into the Anglo-Saxon language the three Latin 
works which he considered most valuable.^ He set scholars 
at work to translate other books, especially the Ecclesiasti- 
cal History of Bede, which recounted the history of Chris- 
tian Britain. He also caused the early portions of the 
A?iglo-Saxon Clironicle to be composed in the mother tongue, 
so that his subjects might know the history of their own 
race from the time when it first invaded England. 

The character of Alfred the Great made a deep impres- 
sion upon his people. A thousand years after his death 

delegates from all the English-speaking coun- 
AlfreT*^^ ° ^^^^^ gathered together at Winchester, his old 

capital, to do honor to his memory. About his 
name have clustered many fables which show how the peo- 
ple of later days were inclined to attribute all that was 
best and noblest to him. Possibly the finest tribute to 
his character is the name justly bestowed upon him of 
"Alfred the Truth-teller." 

Effect of the Under his successors, Edward the UncoU' 

Danish inva- quered, Athelstan the Glorious, Edmund the 
^^°^^' Doer-of-great-deeds, and Edred, the whole of 

England passed under the rule of the king of Wessex. The 
Danish invasions had really aided in making a united Eng- 

- The Consoldfion,^ of PhiJoftnphy. by Boethius; the Universal His- 
tory of Orosius, and the Pastoral Care of Gregory the Great. 



ENGLAND T9 

land. Before their attacks began the inhabitants of the 
petty kingdoms into which the country was divided had been 
separated from one another by feelings of antagonism and 
jealousy. After the Danes had made themselves master of 
the rest of England, the king of Wessex became the cham- 
pion of Englishmen and Christians against the invaders and 
pagans. Consequently, after each conquest of territory, he 
was accepted willingly as king by the English inhabitants. 
He was the national leader, " King of the English." 

Athelstan's power was so great that alliance with him 
was sought by the chief rulers on the continent. His three 

sisters married Charles the Simple of France, 
AtheTstan. ^^^^ ^ ^^ Germany, and Hugh the Great. His 

greatest achievement was his victory at Bru- 
nanburh, in 927, over the king of the Scots and the Danish 
kings of the north. A war-song was composed in honor of 
this victory and is preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
Parts of it are as follows : ^ 

The West Saxons forth, No slaughter has been greater 

the live-long day, in this island 

in martial bands, ever yet 

follow'd the footsteps of folk laid low, 

of the hostile nations. before this, . 

They hewed the fugitives by the swords' edges, 

from behind amain from what books tell us, 

with falchions mill-sharji. old chroniclers. 

The Mercians refused not, since hither from the east 

the hard hand-play Angles and Saxons 

to any of the warriors, came to the land, 

who with Olaf, o'er the broad seas 

o'er the waves mingling, Britain sought, 

in the ship's bosom, proud war-smiths, 

the land had sought the Welsh o'ercame, 

death-doomed in fight. men for glory eager, 

the country gained. 

• Tt is fortunate that this ballad of our forefathers has been pre- 
served. Its form illustrates the character of the early English poetry. 



80 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

The period from 955 to lOlG, although broken by the 

peaceful rule of Edgar (959-975), was marked by internal 

wars which made the nation weak. This was 

Danish mva- shown clearly when the Danes made new inva- 
sions renewed, . ■ rxn ^ -\ 11 J- M ■ mi 

sions in 988 and the lollowmg years. The peo- 
ple in different localities made a valiant defense, but " shire 
would not help shire," and Ethelred used gold, not steel, 
to repel the invaders. In 991 and the following years the 
Danegeld was levied to furnish money to buy off the Danes, 
and the tribute paid to them led to new invasions. In 1003 
the English fear and hatred of the Danes became so in- 
tense that Ethelred ordered the massacre of St. Brice's day, 
when many of the Danes in England were murdered. This 
aroused Swegen, king of Denmark, to take vengeance, and 
he devastated the kingdom. Ethelred was compelled to 
flee to Kormandy, and Swegen was recognized as king by 
right of conquest. When he died, in the following year, 
Etlielred returned, and was able to rule until lOlG. 

Ethelred's second marriage, in 1002, had important con- 
sequences for England. His bride was Emma, daughter of 
the duke of Normandy, in whose train Nor- 

Connection of -i^ i t -, • -, n^ 

England with mans Came to England and received oinces. 
Normandy. Ethelred, when driven out, took refuge at the 
duke's court ; later Emma again fled thither, taking her 
sons with her, of whom one was later Edward the Confessor. 
From the time of Ethelred's marriage Englishmen and 
Normans became closely associated. 

On the death of Swegen, his son, Canute, had not been 

strong enough to obtain the English kingdom, which had 

been restored to Ethelred. On the death of 

GoYernment of ^j^g j^^^^g^, ^j^^^.^ ^^g ^ double election ; Canute 

Canute. ' ' 

was chosen by one party, and Edmund, son of 

Ethelred, by the other. The death of Edmund gave the 
whole kingdom to Canute. His reign was inaugurated by 
the killing of all the leaders whom he thought dangerous. 
But after he felt that his rule was firmly established he ruled 



ENGLAND 81 

with great justice and ability. He made very few clianges 
in the institutions of England, except by creating the great 
earls. Under the preceding kings it was customary for 
each shire to have as its chief an ealdorman ; some of these 
became very powerful, and extended their rule over two or 
more shires. Canute made four great divisions of his king- 
dom — Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and JSTorthumberland — 
and placed at the head of each an official whose title was 
no longer ealdorman but earl. 

The other parts of the Anglo-Saxon administrative sys- 
tem were retained by Canute ; the powers of the government 
were, for the most part, in the hands of local groups. At 
the base of the system were the Inindreds, which were com- 
posed of an ilidefinite number of townships, of which each 
one was held responsible for its own members. The assem- 
bly of the hundred decided local disputes, punished crimes, 
and recorded agreements. The hundreds were grouped to- 
gether into shires, which also had their assemblies, presided 
over by the shire reeve or sheriff. The whole kingdom was 
divided into shires, and, except under a very 
ments and strong king, the maintenance of order depended 

witenagemot. x^pon the local authorities. Moreover, the king 
was controlled to a great extent by the witenagemot, or as- 
sembly of the great men of the whole kingdom, which had 
the right to elect the king. All laws had to receive the 
sanction of its members, who formed the advisory council 
of the king, and all important actions were submitted to 
them for approval. In the witenagemot the bishops and 
nobles sat together. 

On the death of Canute, in 1035, his two sons ruled in 

succession ; but after their death the witenagemot, in 1042, 

, ^ elected Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred 

Edward the 

Confesisor and and the Xomian Emma. He had been educated 
Godwin. j,-^ Normandy,-and brought with him to Eng- 

land many Xormaus, who were given important offices and 
had great influence. Godwin, whom Canute had made earl 



82 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

of Wessex, had been influential in having Edward elected ; 
and his daughter was married to the king. But when the 
king brought in his Norman favorites Godwin opposed 
them and became the leader of the anti-Xorman party. 
He and his family were exiled, but soon returned, supported 
by the whole English nation, and became all-powerful in the 
kingdom. On the death of Godwin, his son Harold suc- 
ceeded him ; and on the death of Edward, Harold was 
elected king by the witenagemot. 

Immediately, William, duke of Normandy, asserted a 

claim to the throne. The claim was based upon a pretended 

bequest by Edward, with whom William had 

William claims j^gg^ jj^ intimate association. In addition, the 
the kingdom! 

duke claimed that Harold had broken an oath, 
as, according to William's statement, Harold had taken an 
oath not to oppose his election. Neither Edward nor Harold 
could give the kingdom away ; but these claims were put 
forward to justify William's invasion. 

Gathering together a mixed host, he landed in England 
in 10G6, and at Hastings, or Senlac, won a decisive victory, 

and in the battle Harold was slain. London 
Norman soon opened its gates to William, and he was 

onqnes . crowncd on Christmas day. The conquest of 

the whole land was accomplished after four years of fight- 
ing, and William was recognized as the legitimate king. 
By this conquest all England had come under his power, 
William held that all who had taken up arms against him 
to aid the perjured Harold had forfeited their lands to 
the crown. He gave part of their lands to his Norman 
followers ; part he allowed the English holders to redeem ; 
but in every case the transaction was made with a strict 
observance of legal forms. In this manner all land came 
to be held from the king, and following the custom in 
Normandy, he required every vassal to take an oath of 
allegiance directly to him, and not to any intermediate 
lord. In this way William avoided the dangerous condi- 



ENGLAND 83 

tions in France, where a vassal owed allegiance only to 
his lord and not to the king. In other respects also he 
introduced the forms of feudalism as they existed in Xor- 
mandy. Following the strict letter of the law, as he inter- 
preted it, he supplanted gradually the English earls, bishops, 
and abbots, and introduced Normans in their place. 

The results of his policy can be seen in the Domesday 
Booh, which contains the records of a general survey made 

in 1086. The pretext for this survey was the 
Domesday necessity of a census in order that taxation 

might be more effective. In the case of each 
entry in Domesday there is a statement of the present pos- 
sessor of the land, of the possessor in the days of King 
Edward, and of the value of the land at those two dates. 
In addition, there is a vast mass of details as to the num- 
ber of freemen and serfs, and of their possessions. It is 
an unique record of medieval civilization, although many 
subjects are ignored or taken for granted, so that it is dif- 
ficult at the present day to understand its full meaning. 
It shows very clearly that William was carrying out his 
policy with a strict attention to the law as he interpreted 
it. The record seems to have been made impartially, for 
Normans, and even the immediate family of the king, are 
recorded as withholding property unjustly from Saxons, to 
whom it actually belonged. 

The conquest had most important results for England, 
and changes worthy of note took place under William and 

T, IX r.i. his successors. First of all, the conquest made 

Eesultsoftne ^ 

conquest ; power the central government much stronger. All 

of the king. lands were held from the king, and all free- 
men were obliged to serve in the king's army. He collected 
getieral taxes, and sent judges throughout the land to hold 
courts and try cases. The sheriff in each shire was obliged 
to report to the king twice each year, so that the latter's 
authority was felt in every part of the land and the local 
rulers lost much of their importance. 



84 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

In the second place, the conquest brought England into 
close association with the Continent, as William and his 
successors were dukes of Normandy as well as 
Connection with j^i^gs of England, consequently the two coun- 
tries were brought into intimate relations. 
Some of his followers held estates on both sides of the 
English Channel, which made it necessary for them and 
their vassals to make frequent journeys between England 
and Normandy. Moreover, William had sought the sanction 
of the Pope for his invasion ; and after he had conquered 
the country, he brought the English Church more fully 
under the authority of the Pope, so that Roman legates 
journeyed to England and English bishops sought Rome. 

In the third place, the conquest brought in new classes 
of inhabitants. Norman merchants and artisans, as well 
as Norman lords, settled in England, intro- 
•^h\t ducing new customs and a new language. 

Stately Norman churches were built ; Norman 
castles guarded the land ; the Norman-French language 
was spoken by the ruling classes, and for a time English 
was spoken only by the conquered people. Only gradually 
did the latter regain the supremacy ; and then it had lost 
many of its ancient forms, and was enriched by new words 
borrowed from the Norman-French. The language, the 
people, the country as a whole, profited greatly by the 
changes introduced by the Norman conquest. 

William Rufus, who succeeded William the Conqueror, 

in 1087, was noted chiefly for his vices and his tyrannical 

rule. But the next king, Henry I, 1100-1135, 

Successors of redressed the evil customs and won the name 

Williami 

of " the lion of justice." He granted a charter 
of liberties, restored some of the powers to the local author- 
ities, and married an English wife ; by these acts he con- 
ciliated the support of his English subjects, so that by their 
aid he was able to conquer Normandy, which had been given 
to his brother. 



ENGLAND 



85 



References 

Conversion of the English : Cutis, Parish Priests and their People 
(London, 1898), chap. ii. Vikings in Enghmd: Green, Conquest, 
chap. ii. Alfred: Green, Conquest, chaji. iv ; Freeman, Norman 
Conquest (New York, 1873), vol. i, pp. 31-37. The Norman Con- 
quest: Freeman, William (London, 1894), chaps, v-ix. Growth of 
the Nation: Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England (New 
York, 1901), pp. 1-19. 



KINGS OF THE FAMILY OF EGBERT 





EGBERT, 

802-839. 

ETHELWULF, 

839-858. 
1 






1 1 1 

ETHELBAI.D, ETHELBERT, ETHELRED, 

t860. t8G6. tSri. 


1 
ALFRED, 

871-901. 

EDWARD, 

901-924. 


ATHELSTAN, 
924-940. 


1 
EDMUND I, 
940-946. 




1 
EDRED, 

946-955 


1 
EDWY. 

955-959. 






EDGAR, 

959-975. 

1 


1 
EDWARD THE MARTYR, 

975-979. 


1 
ETHELRED THE UNREADY=1. Elgiva=2. Emma. 
979-1016. 1 1 


1 
EDMUND IRONSIDE, 

tioie. 




ED'' 


1 


1 
iVARD THE CONFESSOR, 
1042-1066. 



CHAPTER IX 

The Moslem World (750-1095) 

Summary. — Within a hundred years after the death of Mohammed 
his followers had conquered a large part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
They also advanced rapidly in civilization. Their skill in agriculture, 
commerce, and manufacturing, and their knowledge of the arts and 
sciences, were greater than those possessed by the Christians in the west 
of Europe. Between 750 and 1050 the latter reconquered portions of 
the territory which had been held by the Mohammedans. In the elev- 
enth century the Seljukian Turks brought new forces to the aid of 
Islam, and the Christian countries were again exposed to conquest. 

During the first hundred years after the death of Mo- 
hammed (632) his followers conquered the greater part of 

the civilized world. About the middle of the 
Advance of the . 

Mohammedans eighth century their advance was checked, 
checked. |)q^];^ j^ i\^q gj^g^ j^j^(\ j^ ^|;,g west. This was 

due to internal dissensions, caused by the usurpation of the 
Abbassides, the rebellion of provincial governors, and the 
revolt of subject races. 

Mohammed left no male descendants, and the first ca- 
liphs, or "successors" of the prophet, were elected. Very 
soon a contest for the supreme power broke 

The Abbasside ^^^^^ between the Ommiads, members of one of 
dynasty. 

the leading families of Mecca, and the family 

of the prophet. In 661 the Ommiads triumphed and made 

the caliphate hereditary in their family. The descendants 

of Mohammed's family refused to consider the Ommiads 

as legitimate caliphs and plotted to overthrow their power. 

In 750 the Abbassides, who were descendants of the prophet's 

86 



THE MOSLEM WORLD 87 

uncle, raised an army of the discontented, assassinated the 

Ommiad caliph, and became supreme. 

The first province to revolt was Andalusia (Spain). One 

of the Ommiads escaped the slaughter, in which almost all 

of his relatives were involved, and after five 

The emirateof years of wandering, landed in Spain. There 
Cordova, 755. ; . , i • i • , 

he gamed many adherents, and within about a 

year became the ruler of all Mohammedan Spain, with the 

title of emir, or commander.^ 

Even before tlie founding of the emirate of Cordova 

the conquests of the Moors in western Europe had been 

checked by the revolt of the Berbers. The 

Revolt of latter, the inhabitants of northern Africa, had 

Berbers. 

been conquered and converted to Islam only 

after seventy years of war. In 740 they rose in rebellion 
against tbe caliph. After that time the latter was unable 
to send reenforcements to Spain or to get recruits from 
Africa. 

In spite of these losses the reign of the Abbasside ca- 
liphs opened brilliantly. The Arabs in their conquests had 
come into contact with highly civilized nations, 
Civilization of g^^^j ]-,.^(j acquired information and absorbed 

Islam, ^ 

culture from their conquered subjects. At 
Bagdad, to which the Abbassides moved their capital in 
7G3, they fell under Persian influence. This was fortunate, 
as Persia had been for four centuries the seat of a highly 
developed civilization, which derived its main elements 
from Greece, China, and India. The influence of the first 
had been especially prominent, as the Persians had studied 
eagerly the philosophy and science of ancient Greece. 

Bagdad under Haroun al-Easchid,the caliph 

of the Arahian Nights^ became a center of learn- 
ing and the seat of great luxury. The palace, with the 
buildings which housed its officials and servants, formed 



' In 929 his descendants assumed the title of caliph. 



88 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



a city in itself. It was thronged with theologians, poets, 
musicians, officials, and ambassadors from distant nations. 
Twenty-two thousand rugs carpeted the floor of the palace ; 
thirty-eight thousand pieces 
of tapestry hung on the walls. 
A hundred lions, each with 
its keeper, added to the mag- 
nificence of the spectacle when 
an ambassador was received. 
At the nuptials of Mamun " a 
thousand pearls of the largest 
size were showered on the head 
of the bride." The tales in 
the Arabian Nights reflect 
very faithfully the luxury and 
life of Bagdad under its early 
rulers. 

This civilization was not 

confined to Bagdad or Persia. 

From the Eu- 

Diffusionofthe phrates to the 

civilization, ^ 

Atlantic Ocean 

extended the Mohammedan 
dominions, inhabited by peo- 
ple of many races, but all speaking the Arabic language 
and governed by the same laws. Each country contributed 
its own knowledge to the sum total ; the Arabs unified the 
whole and carried it throughout their empire, raising the 
more barbarous countries to a higher civilization, 

Spain under their rule became the most 
prosperous and enlightened country of Eu- 
rope. Christian students from Germany, France, and Eng- 
land studied in Mohammedan Spain, where they came into 
contact with learned scholars from all parts of the Moslem 




Arab Horn.* 



Aral) Spain, 



' Said to have been given to Charles the Great by Haroun al-Rasehid. 



THE MOSLEM WORLD 89 

world. Art was cultivated, literature was cherished, sci- 
ence was studied when the rest of Europe, except Constan- 
tinople, was in its darkest age. ^^'onlen in Spain vied with 
the men in tlie pursuit of learning ; some were skilled in 
medicine ; others gave public lectures on scientific subjects. 
Much of the prosperity of Spain was due to the wise 
policy of the rulers in their treatment of the conquered 
races. The Christians suffered few hardships ; tlieir taxes 
were light ; their churches were unmolested, and their 

property was secure. The only persecution 
Toleration. i i. i.i • x j. i j? n 

was due to the intemperate zeal oi some rash 

fanatics who sought martyrdom, and their conduct was de- 
nounced Justly and severely by a Christian council. The 
Christian bishops were appointed by the emir, but ordi- 
narily he appointed the candidates chosen by the Chris- 
tians. The public offices were open to men of all races 
and religions, and many of tlieni were held by Slavs, Jews, 
and Christians, who were promoted to high positions. 
One of the ambassadors sent to Otto the Great by the 
caliph of Cordova was a Christian bishop. 

An Arab maxim says, " It is one of the chief duties of 
the government to construct the canals necessary for the , 

cultivation of the soil." The Arab rulers in 
S^ ^ ^ • Spain acted upon this maxim, and put into 
practice the art of irrigation learned in Egypt. Water- 
wheels were introduced, distributing canals were dug, so 
that Spain became a vast garden. Eice, sugar-cane, hemp, 
cotton, asparagus, artichokes, beans, melons, oranges, apri- 
cots, palms, yellow roses and other flowers which had been 
brought from the East, were cultivated there. 

Silk-weaving is said to have employed the labor of 130,000 
men in the caliphate of Cordova. The island of Majorca 

was famous for its pottery, of which the manu- 
^^ ^^' facture was transferred later to Italy, where it 
became known as " majolica." The sword-blades of To- 
ledo acquired a fame which has become proverbial. In 



90 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Commerce, 



1^ 



addition, the Moors of Spain were renowned for their orna- 
mental metal work and exquisite ivory carvings. 

The products of Spain were exchanged for wares from 
Asia and Africa. The Mohammedans traded, by vessels 
or caravans, with China, from which they obtained silk, 
tea, lac, and china ; with Calcutta and Sumatra, 
whence they brought spices, drugs, pearls, and 
precious stones ; with Africa, which supplied 
them with slaves, ivory, and gold dust ; with the 
country to the north of the Bl^ck 
Sea, which furnished furs and am- 
ber. Moreover, they carried on an active trade 
with Constantinople, and later with the cities of 
Italy. Eeligious differences were not permitted 
to interfere with the trade. Bagdad was the cen- 
ter of this important commerce, but Arab Spain 
shared in its advantages. The bazaar, or the 
merchants' quarter, was an important part of 
each Spanish city. 

A people so advanced in the arts of civiliza- 
tion was naturally devoted to study. Schools 
and universities flourished, and were supported 
partly by the Government, partly by private lib- 
erality. The most important study was theol- 
ogy, with which law and grammar were closely 
associated. Philosophy, especially the writings 
of Aristotle, was studied enthusiastically, and 
it was from the Arab commentaries and trans- 
lations that the Christians later acquired much 
of their knowledge of Aristotle's works. Libra- 
ries were common, and a caliph in the 
earning. tenth century collected 400,000 volumes. He 

sent his agents everywhere to copy books, he employed 
authors to write new ones, and he is said to have read them 



Arab 
Daggek.' 



-• Said to have been given to Charles the Great by Haroun al-Raschid. 




INTERIOR, MOSQUE OF CORDOVA. 



THE MOSLEM WORLD 91 

all. This was probably the largest library in the middle 
ages, and Avas not surpassed in size until long after the 
invention of printing. In the west of Europe, at the 
same period, a library of a thousand volumes was practi- 
cally unknown. 

Mathematics formed a favorite subject of study among 
the Arabs. In arithmetic they employed the so-called 

Arabic figures, including the zero. Among 
Mathematics. j_t m^ • j.- j. i.i • j j.i -n 

the Christuins at the same period the Koman 

figures were used almost universally; later these were 
called, in contrast with the Arabic, the "• sweating calcu- 
lators." Early in the ninth centui'y an Arab mathemati- 
cian composed a text-book on algebra, which, after some 
centuries, was introduced into Europe and was used until 
the end of the middle ages. Other Arabs in the ninth 
and tenth centuries developed spherical trigonometry and 
mathematical physics, which the Christians acquired from 
them in the thirteenth century. 

The Arabs in Spain taught geography by the use of 
globes. By their study of alchemy, in which they sought 

especially the " philosopher's stone," which 
Other brandies ^Quld transmute base substances into gold, 

and the "elixir of life," which would bestow 
the gift of perpetual youth, they acquired a considerable 
knowledge of chemistry, producing a number of new com- 
pounds, such as alcohol, aqua regia, and corrosive subli- 
mate. In medicine they based their science on the wri- 
tings of the Greeks, and developed their knowledge until 
they became the most skilful doctors in the medieval 
world. 

By the Koran, Mohammedans are forbidden to make 
representations of living objects. This prevented them 

from making much progress in sculpture and 
tecture, pointing, although there are some well-known 
transgressions of the prophet's command, notably the fa- 
mous court of the lions in the Alhambra. In architecture 



92 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



they were unhampered, tiud they devoted themselves espe- 
cially to this branch of art. At first they copied, with 
slight changes, Byzantine buildings ; gradually they com- 
bined with the Byzantine forms other motives which they 
found in Persia and the East, or which they themselves 
invented. Their buildings are marked by ogives, arabesques, 
and pendentives, but above all by the ornamentation, 
which they carried to an extreme. The ceilings and inte- 
rior walls are covered with arabesques of geometrical fig- 
ures, of foliage, or of Arabic inscription. 

Frequently the Europeans, in acquiring new informa- 
tion from the Arabs, borrowed the Arabic term. Many 
words in the modern languages of Europe beginning with 
al — the definite article in Arabic — betray their origin and 
show the source from which the knowledge was obtained. 
For example, we have in English algebra, 
alcohol, alembic, alkali, alche- 
my, almanac, Aldebaran 'the 
star, and many other words. 
In a similar way damask from Damascus, 
muslin from Mosul, cordovan from Cor- 
dova, and morocco, show in their names 
the sources from which they were first ob- 
tained. Sugar, cotton, and other names 
were borrowed without the article al. 

While this civilization was being de- 
veloped, the power of the caliph of Bagdad 

^, . , ,. was declining rapidly. His 
Disintegration " i. j 

of the Moham- subjccts Were no longer ani- 
medan world. mated by intense zeal for com- 
bat. Luxury and refinement had created new tastes. Ee- 
ligious unity of feeling had disappeared, as new sects had 
arisen ; the difi'erent sects were bitterly opposed to one 
another, and were unwilling to join in a common war of 
propagation or defense. Political unity had been destroyed 
by the revolt of the Berbers and by the establishment of 



Words from 
Araljic. 




Arab Coin. 

(Obverse and re- 
verse. ) 



TUE MOSLEM WORLD 93 

the Ommiad dyuasty in Spain. The caliphs at Bagdad, 
weakened by luxury, were losing control over their offi- 
cials, so that one province after another revolted. As the 
caliph's power declined, he lost his prestige, so that in the 
tenth century two rival caliphates were established — one at 
Cairo and the other at Cordova ; and each ruler claimed to 
be the true caliph — the successor of the prophet. The pro- 
cess of disintegration went on rapidly. In the eleventh 
century the East was divided into petty states, each ruled 
by a conqueror or military commander, recognizing only 
in the most formal way the authority of any caliph. In 
Spain the caliphate of Cordova broke up, in 1033, into 
seven small kingdoms. 

As the Mussulmans became weaker the Christians suc- 
ceeded in reconquering some of the lands which they had 
formerly held. All of southern Gaul was re- 
''h^^rh'^^'^"^^ °^ gained. In Spain the descendants of the Chris- 
tians who had retreated beyond the mountains 
in the northwest, took one town after another until, by the 
middle of the eleventh century, one-third of Spain had 
come into their power. Sardinia was reconquered about 
1050, southern Italy and Sicily about lOGO. In the east 
the Byzantine emperors were recovering gradually much 
of Asia Minor and Syria. Although the period from 750 
to 1050 is marked by no great wars between Christians and 
Moslems, and although the Moslems rallied occasionally 
and recaptured some places, the result was a great advance 
for the Christians, who seemed destined to recover all the 
lands formerly included in the Eoman Empire. 

For centuries Mongolian or Turkish tribes from the in- 
terior of Asia had been pressing to the westward. As a 
rule they had gone to the north of the Caspian 
^''° ^' and Black Seas, and had sought their conquests 
and booty in Europe. But some had gone to the southwest 
and had entered into the service of the caliph at Bagdad. 
In the eleventh century a great Turkish kingdom was 



04 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

formed by rulers descended from Seljuk, a legendary hero 
of whom little is definitely known. The Seljuks conquered 
Persia, and, having adopted Islam, were welcomed, in 1055, 
as defenders, by the weak Abbasside caliph at Bagdad. 
From this time the Turkish sultan became supreme, al- 
though the caliph remained, theoretically, the religious 
ruler. The Seljuks, who were bravo soldiers, spread over 
all Asia Minor and Syria. In 1071 they won a decisive 
victory at Manzikert, in which the Byzantine army was 
annihilated. Within a few years all of the Asiatic posses- 
sions of the Byzantine Empire had fallen under the rule 
of the Turks, and they were threatening Constantinojjle. 

Fortunately for the Byzantine Empire, the sultan was 
not able to keep control over the Turkish leaders, of whom 

each conquered such territory as he could and 
Disunion among established an almost independent principality. 

Internal wars began at once among the Turks, 
and their strength was exhausted in fighting one another. 
The natives whom they had conquered were disaffected, 
but attempted no open revolt against the Turkish garrisons 
which held all the fortresses. But the dissensions among 
the various emirs, or commanders, made the Mohammedans 
weak, and offered an excellent opportunity to the Chris- 
tians for reconquering Asia Minor and Syria. 

~" --^,,,^^^ BiBLIOGKAPHY 

Lane-Poole: The Moors in Spain (New York, 1891). Gibbon: 
Decline and Fall, chaps, lii, Ivii. Yonge : Christians and Moors in 
Spain. Ameer AH: Short History of the Saracens, chaps, xxv, xxxi 
(London and New York, 1899). 



CHAPTER X 

The Byzantine Empire 

Summary. — In the early middle ages the Byzantine Empire was the 
strongest and most civilized of Christian countries. Because of its po- 
sition it served as a bulwark to Europe against invasions from Asia. 
It also performed other services of the greatest importance for the fu- 
ture history of Europe. It was enabled to do this by its carefully or- 
ganized administrative system and excellent army. It was constantly 
attacked for several centuries, and lost much of its territory, but. al- 
though frequently in desperate straits, it succeeded each time in main- 
taining its position. Toward the close of the eleventh century, after 
having repulsed all invaders, it was ready to attempt the reconquest of 
the territory which had been overrun by the Turks. 

During the early centiiries of the middle ages Con- 
stantinople was the most wealthy and populous city in Eu- 
rope. Its inhabitants were the most artistic, 
oEs an mop e. jg^^^j^g^j^ ^^^ highly civilized people in the 

Christian world. They controlled the commerce of the 
Mediterranean Sea and monopolized the manufacture of 
many luxuries. They were governed by an elaborate sys- 
tem of law which made their property secure, and were 
■ protected by an efficient army which repelled for centuries 
every attack upon their city. They lived in the midst of 
stately buildings, beautiful statues, and costly works of art, 
which could be equaled nowhere else. 

Travelers from western Europe were as- 

Contrast with tonished to find such an enormous city, such 
the West. ^ i ^ r. t i • ' • 

wealth and refinement. lu their own countries 

there were no large cities, none of the luxuries and few 
of the conveniences of life. In the West, learning was con- 
fined to the clergy ; safety in traveling could be secured 

95 



96 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



only by au urmed force ; and the homes of the most pow- 
erful nobles were rough castles, destitute of comfort, and 
built mainly for defense. The kings of France and Ger- 
many were obliged to travel from one to another of their 
farms in order to secure the food necessary for their meals. 
Loathsome skin diseases were common, and there were 
no skilful doctors ; pestilences and famine swept over 
the population from time to time. In Constantinople the 
travelers found lighted and paved 
streets, extensive public parks, hos- 
pitals, and homes for orphans. Or- 
der was preserved by a well-or- 
ganized police force ; theaters and 
circuses were maintained for the 
amusement of the populace. There 
were flourishing schools in which 
the scholars pursued not merely the 
elementary studies taught in the 
West, but also those pertaining to 
law, medicine, and science. The no- 
bles lived in magnificent buildings 
which far surpassed the palaces of 
the western monarchs. The arti- 
sans were comfortably housed, and 
worked together in great factories, 
producing the rich stuffs which were 
so rare and so highly prized in the 
West. In short, they found a civi- 
lization at Constantinople several hundred years in advance 
of the rude customs of Germany, France, or England. 

This civilization did not remain sterile; it performed 
useful services for all the rest of Europe. First of all it 
protected the center of Europe against Mohammedan inva- 
sions until the young states of the West had grown strong. 




Greek Emperor.' 



' Portrait, of the early middle ages, in St, Mark's, Venice. 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 97 

Secondly, it maintained European commerce, until, in the 

later middle ages, the cities of Italy and northern Europe 

„ . ^,, had become wealthy and strong enough to take 
Services of the - rr<i • n ■ n i i 

Byzantine up the task. 1 hirdly, it preserved the learn- 

Empire, jj^g jj^^j civilization of the ancient Greeks and 

Romans and transmitted this priceless heritage to the 
rest of the Christian world — especially during the thir- 
teenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. It spread the 
knowledge of arts and sciences among all the people who 
came into close contact with Constantinople ; thus Venice 
owed its Avealth, luxury, and refinement to its dependence 
upon the Byzantine Empire. Fourthly, it converted to 
Christianity and civilized the inhabitants of all eastern 
Europe. The debt which modern Europe owes to the 
medieval Byzantine Empire is enormous. 

It was able to perform these services because of its 

great strength and resources, and especially because of the 

unique position which its capital held among 

PositioEof ^i^g g^^^ p-^lgg Qf ^j^g ^Qj.|(j_ rpjjg sitnution 

Constantinople, ^ 

of Constantinople was even more advantageous 
in the early middle ages than it is at the present day. 
Then the Balkan peninsula was covered with flourishing 
and wealthy cities, and Asia Minor was one of the most 
fertile and populous districts in the world. From the Bal- 
kan peninsula and Asia Minor Constantinople was able to 
secure a plentiful sujiply of foodstuffs and great revenues 
in money. Even at the present day, after the surrounding 
lands have been laid waste by Turkish conquest and mis- 
rule, Constantinople has a more advantageous site than 
any other capital. It " is a city Avhich Nature herself has 
designed to be the mistress of the world. It stands in Eu- 
rope, looks upon Asia, and is within reach by sea of Egypt 
and the Levant on the south, and of the Black Sea and its 
European and Asiatic shores on the north." ^ It has a 

1 Description of Busbecq, a Flemish traveler of the sixteenth century. 



98 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

deep, spacious, and land-locked harbor, 4 miles long, which 
can be easily defended against a hostile fleet. At the back 
of the city the peninsula is only 4 miles in width, and dur- 
ing the middle ages the approach by land was guarded by 
two walls. The position of Constantinople was an impor- 
tant element in preserving the Byzantine Empire. 

But natural advantages alone would not have made the 

empire strong ; a strong government was needed. Many 

of the emperors were weak and incapable, but 

Administrative ^^^^ administrative system was well organized. 

systenii '' 

Just as the government of Old Rome remained 
effective even under weak or vicious emperors, such as 
Caligula, iSero, or Domitian, so the officials in Xew Rome 
— Constantinople — preserved order and peace even when 
emperors were assassinated and usurpers assumed the impe- 
rial office.^ 

In the ninth and tenth centuries, however, the empire 
had the good fortune to be ruled by able emperors of the 

Armenian and Macedonian dynasties. Under 
t^'est\bliS' *^^® 1^**®^" family the succession to the throne 

was recognized as hereditary ; for one hundred 
and ninety years (867-1057) the members of this house 
succeeded to the throne, and their rule was so firmly estab- 
lished that their power was not shaken during minorities 
Military or- or when womeu reigned. 

ganizatioEof- In the eighth century the old divisions of 

provinces. ^|^g early Roman Empire had been abandoned 

and a new division had been made into tJ/emes, or dis- 
tricts of varying extent. At the head of each theme 

■ " It has been calculated that, from the reign of Arcadius (395-408) 
to tlie capture of Constantinople in 1453, out of 107 persons — who were 
emperors or associate emperors — 12 abdicated either voluntarily or 
under compulsion ; 12 died in monasteries or in prison ; 3 were starved 
to death ; 18 were blinded or otherwise mutilated ; 20 were assassinated 
in some way or other; 8 died in war or accidentally; only 34 died in 
their beds " (Bayet). 



100 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

was an oflficial who controlled both the civil and mili- 
tary administration and was responsible directly to the em- 
peror. Independence in local administration was taken 
away from the towns, and these were governed directly by 
the ruler of the theme. The organization was essentially 
military, and the subdivisions were ruled by officers of the 
army responsible to the governor of the theme. This made 
the central government stronger and maintained order 
more easily, but it weakened the empire, as the people had 
no interest in, nor feeling of responsibility for the govern- 
ment. Consequently, when invaders conquered any part 
of the empire, the inhabitants submitted without resistance 
to the new rule. 

The military force on which the empire depended was 

well organized and had the best weapons known in the 

middle ages. The chief strength of the army 

reng o consisted of cavalry armed with bows and 

the army. -J 

lances, and protected by armor which was 
proof against ordinary missile weapons. Moreover, the art 
of war was more fully developed than anywhere else in the 
medieval world. The emperors took a great interest in 
military science ; three of them composed important treatises 
for the use of their generals. The fortifications were im- 
proved and strengthened. But, above all, the Greek fire 
gave a superiority to the Byzantine armies and fleets ; this 
was made and used in various ways ; ' in particular, from 
hollow tubes fire-balls were hurled on the enemy.- 

> According to one description it was composed of sulfur, dregs of 
wine, Persian gum, salt, pitch, petroleum, and oil boiled together. It 
could be extinguished only by vinegar or sand. But there were many 
different ways of making it ; one form of Greek fire seems to have been 
very similar to gunpowder. The Greeks preserved the secret of its 
composition until about the year 1000; after that it was used freely by 
the Saracens in their battles with the crusaders. 

^ Coinpare the Roman candles of to-day. This was the nearest 
approach to the modern gun. 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 101 

These effective weapons were necessary to the preserva- 
tion of the empire, which was compelled for centuries to 
be on the defensive. In the seventh century 

T ' f 

invasion ^j^^ Slavs had been the most dangerous ene- 

mies, and had made settlements in many parts 
of the Balkan peninsula. The emperors, after long and 
almost fruitless attempts to expel them, were obliged to 
leave them in possession of the districts which they had 
occupied. In many parts of Peloponnesus they had dis- 
placed the ancient Greek inhabitants ; but as they settled 
usually in the country districts, the towns, especially 
Athens, Thebes, and Corinth, remained Greek. Some Slavs 
were given lands in Asia Minor ; for example, 30,000 
were sent thither in 688. In the later centuries a large 
part of the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire were the 
descendants of these Slavic invaders and colonists. 

In the seventh century the Arabs began to attack por- 
tions of the empire, as has been related in a preceding 
chapter. Syria, Egypt, and northern Africa 
^vasiono were conquered; early in the eighth century 

Asia Minor was occupied and Constantinople 
was threatened.^ In the ninth and the early part of the 
tenth century the Arabs took possession of Sicily and some 
cities in the East. But during the tenth century, under 
the able emperors of the Macedonian dynasty, almost all of 
Asia Minor and Syria was reconquered, and those countries 
again became a source of strength to the empire. 

In the seventh century the Bulgarians also began to in- 
vade the empire. In 811 their khan defeated and killed the 
emperor, Nicephorus I, whose skull was made 
Invasion of the ^^^^ ^ driukinff-cup to grace Bulgarian feasts. 

Bulgarians. ox o o . . 

Later in the century they became more civilized 
from their contact with the Slavs, adopted the language of 
the latter, and were converted to Christianity. In 893 

' See page 6. 



102 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

their czar, Simeon, proclaimed himself king and by negotia- 
tion received recognition from the Pope. In 889 war had 
broken out again between the Bulgarians and the empire ; 
after thirty-five years, during which the former were suc- 
cessful everywhere, peace was made, with an agreement 
that tribute should be paid by the emperor to the Bul- 
garians. After forty years of peace, when the emperor 
refused to pay the tribute, war was renewed. It dragged on 
without decisive results until the emperor, Basil II, took 
command in person in 999 and won several victories ; in 
1014 he captured 15,000 Bulgarians and blinded all except 
one in each hundred ; the hundredth man, in each case, 
was deprived of only one eye and was compelled to guide 
the others back to tlieir homes. Tbis bloody vengeance 
discouraged the Bulgarians, who submitted four years later, 
in 1018. Basil II won the epithet of Bulgaroktonos, or 
slayer of Bulgarians. 

In the first half of the tenth century the Hungarians 

or Magyars, who were the terror of Germany, attacked the 

Byzantine Empire also. For a time the emper- 

Attaokby ^^ paid them tribute, but after the victory of 

HungarianSi '' 

Otto the Great on the Lechfeld,^ the emperor 
thought them less dangerous, and refused the tribute. The 
Hungarians attempted to enforce the payment, but were 
beaten off. 

Northmen under Rurik (862-879) had established them- 
selves at Novgorod and founded the Eussian kingdom. 

From this date until 1043 the Russians at- 
Attacksby tacked the empire at various times and levied 

Enssians. , '■ 

tribute from it. At the end of the tenth cen- 
tury the Russian king married a sister of the emperor, 
Basil II, and became a convert to Christianity. After this 
the Russians made occasional raids, but without any great 
effect upon the empire. 

' See page 54. 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 103 

This survey of the dangers which threatened tlie Byzan- 
tine Empire illustrates the most notable fact in its history — 

its_ " constant vitality and power of revival." 
Need of strong Frequently it was obliged to submit and to pay 

tribute to invaders ; then agaiii it would re- 
cover its strength and conquer its enemies. Amid such 
dangers despotism seemed almost a necessity. The empire 
had no natural boundaries, was inhabited by different races 
which had little in common, and was surrounded by hostile 
states. The only safeguard was a strong central adminis- 
tration. 

The Macedonian dynasty, after ruling for one hundred 
and ninety years, died out in 1057. A period of anarchy 

ensued, in which there was no legitimate heir, 
Attack by r^j^^^ f^^^ usurpers held the throne in succession 

Turks. 

within a period of twenty-four years. A Turk- 
ish race, which was said to number over half a million, 
crossed the Danube and ravaged the European portion of 
the empire, but made no settlement. In Asia, the Sel- 
jukian Turks invaded Armenia and Asia Minor. The em- 
peror, after some unimportant victories, was defeated by 
them in the battle of Manzikert, in 1071, and was taken 
prisoner. He was released on his promise to pay a ransom, 
but on his return he found that the imperial title had been 
usurped by a rival, who imprisoned and blinded him. 

In 1081 Alexius Comnenus seized the imperial throne. 
He was a very able ruler, and, in spite of all the difficulties 
., , which confronted him, he was successful in es- 

Alexius 

Comnenus, tablishing his power firmly and in making the 

1081-1118. empire strong again. Almost as soon as he 
became emperor he was compelled to engage in war with 
the Xormans, who, earlier in the century, had established 
themselves in southern Italy, and were now desirous of ex- 
tending their dominions at the expense of the Greek em- 
pire. After four years of war they were obliged to desist, 
and Alexius was free to turn his attention to other dangers. 



104 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

It was time, for the Patzinaks — a Turkish race, settled 
along the Danube, which had threatened the empire from 
time to time for several centuries — were ravaging Thrace, 
It took nine years to defeat and expel them from the em- 
pire. Alexius, unwearied, was now ready for new wars. 

The Byzantine Empire, in 1095, after so 

Byzantine many wars, was greatly reduced in territorv, 

Empire in 1095. •' . ^ ■, -, t 

but was still wealthy and strong. Its civuiza- 
tion had suffered no decline, its capital was unharmed by 
all the invasions which had swept over other portions of its 
territory. 

References 

Harrison: Meaning of History (New York, 1894), chains, xi, xii. 
Gibbon : Decline and Fall, chap. Ivii. Harrison : Byzantine History 
(Rede Lecture ; London, 1900). Oman: Byzantine Empire (New York, 
1898), pp. 250-262. Tout: Empire and Papacy, chap. vii. 

Emperors of the Byzantine Empire, 717-1204 
Syrian {Isaurian) Dynasty, 717-802 

Leo III, the Isaurian, 717-740. Irene, 797-802. 

Constantine V or VI, Copronymus, Nicephorus I, 802-811. 

740-775. Stauracius, 811. 

Leo IV, the Chazar, 775-779. Michael I, Rlumgabe, 811-813. 
Constantine VI or VII, 779-797. 

Amorian Dynasty, 820-867 

Leo V, The Armenian, 813-820. Theophihis, 829-842. 
Michael II, the Stammerer, 820- Michael III, the Drunkard, 842- 
829. 867. 

Basilian or Armenian {Macedonian) Dynasty, 867-1057 

Basil I, the Macedonian, 867-886. Alexander, 912-913. 

Constantine VI (with Basil I), 868- Romanus I, Lecapetms, 919-945.1 

878. (As associates his three sons, 

Leo VI. the Wise. 886-912. Christopher, Stephen, and Con- 

Constantine the VII or VIII, Por- stantine.) 

phyrogenitus, 912-958. Romanus II, 958-963. 

1 Usurper. 



THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 



105 



Basil II, Bulgaroctonus, 963-1035. 

(As associate his brother, Coii- 

stantine, 1028.)^ 
Nicephorus II, Phocas, 963-969.1 
John I, Zimisees, 969-976.^ 
Constantine VIII or IX, 102.5- 

1028. 
Romanus III, Argyrus, 1028-1034. 



Michael IV, the Paphhigoiiian, 

1034-1042. 
Michael V, 1042. 
Constantine IX or X, Monomachus, 

1042-1055. (Reigns with his wife 

Zoe.) 
Theodora, 1055-1057. 
Michael VI, Stratioticus, 1057. 



Isaac I, Comnenus, 1057-1059.^ 
Constantine X or XI, Ducas, 1059- 

1067.1 
Eudocia, 1067-1071.' 
(In the name of her sons, Michael 
VII, 1067-1078, Andronicus and 
Constantine, and with her sec- 
ond husband, Romanus IV, 
1067-1071.) 
Michael VII (see above), 1071-1078.' 
Nicephorus III, Botaniates, 1078- 
1081.1 



Comnenian Dynasty, 1057-1204 

Alexias I, Comnenus, 1081-1118. 
John or Calojohannes, Comnenus, 

1118-1143. 
Manuel I, Comnenus, 1143-1180. 
Alexius II, Comnenus, 1180-1183. 
Andronicus I, Comnenus, 1183- 

1185. 
Isaac II, Angelus, 1185-1195. 
Alexius III, Angelus, 1195-1203.' 
Isaac II (restored), 
Alexius IV, Angelus, | 
Alexius V, Ducas, 1204.' 



1203-1204. 



1 Usurper. 



/. 



CHAPTER XI 

The Crusades 

Summary. — In order to reconquer the territory overrun by the 
Turks the emperor, Alexius, sought aid from the West. The Pope, to 
whom he appealed, aroused the Christians, by an eloquent address, to 
conquer the Holy Land. Hundreds of thousands took the cross and 
went to Constantinople and Syria. ' The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem 
was established, and the men from the west lived for two centuries in 
close and intimate association with the Greeks and Mohammedans. 
Moreover, in 1304, Constantinople was captured by the Crusaders, and 
the Latin Empire established. The most important results of tliese 
movements, which brought the inhabitants of western Europe into 
intimate and long-continued relations with the more civilized peoples 
of the east, were the great intellectual advance, and the enrichment 
of France, Italy, Germany, and England. 

The emperor, Alexins, after having expelled the in- 
vaders from the Enropean portion of his empire, desired 
to recover Asia Minor and Syria. The dis- 
Aieaus appeals ^^jon amonff the Tnrks seemed to aiford him 

for aid. 

an excellent opportnnity. But he felt the 
need of additional soldiers, because his own forces had 
been weakened by the continuous warfare of the preceding 
years. He was unable to obtain recruits from Asia Minor 
as he had dome in the past, consequently he turned his 
attention to the West. For a long time- the emperors had 
been accustomed to take into their service Danes, English-' 
men, and other adventurers from the West, who formed the 
Varangian guard, the emperor's most efficient corps. In 
1074, after the disastrous defeat in Asia Minor, an appeal 
for troops had been made by the emperor to Gregory VII, 
106 



THE CRUSADES 107 

and an army of 50,000 men had been raised for the aid of 
the eastern empire. But the investiture struggle ^ and 
other troubles had prevented the Pope from sending this 
assistance. In 1095 Alexius made a new request for aid 
to expel the Turks from his Asiatic dominions. 

The fact that this appeal was made to the Pope is an 

excellent illustration of the condition of affairs at the close 

of the eleventh century. Notwithstanding the 

Why the Pope jgng investiture struggle, the Pope was the only 

was appealed to. ^. . "Y „ , 

possible source of aid in western Europe. Tbe 

German king was powerless to aid Alexius ; he was barely 
able to maintain his own position against his rebellious 
subjects and his son. The French king was under the ban 
of excommunication, and possessed too little real power to 
give aid to any one. In England, William Eufus was en- 
gaged in quelling the revolt of the barons, which had been 
occasioned by his tyrannical rule. In Spain the kings were 
occupied in warfare with the Moors. No one of the other 
countries had as yet secured a position of importance in 
the affairs of Europe. 

The emperor's ambassadors presented themselves at the 
council of Piacenza in March, 1095, and appealed for aid. 
The Pope, Urban II, took up the matter in earnest, and 
during the succeeding months matured his plans. He 
decided to begin the movement in France, where the peo- 
ple were suffering from the evils caused by overpopulation. 
Accordingly, at the council of Clermont, in Xovcmber, 
after the other business had been finished, he made an 
eloquent address to the people, urging them 
The council of to undertake a crusade. He depicted the dan- 

Clermont. ^ t i x» 

gers and disasters which threatened the By- 
zantine Empire ; he dwelt upon the cruel treatment of the 
Christians in the East and the desecration of the holy 
places by the Turks ; he contrasted the opportunities in 

^ See page 59. 



108 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

"the land flowing with milk and honey " with their own 
sad lot in France ; he promised that Christ would be their 
leader, and that the journey should take the place of all 
other penance for their sins. 

"Many orations have been delivered with as much elo- 
quence and in as fiery words as the Pope used, but no other 
oration has ever been able to boast of as wonderful re- 
sults." The people cried out, " It is the will of God," and 
rushed forward by thousands to receive the cross, the sym- 
bol of their vow. For the Pope had appealed to the most 
powerful motives of the age. Many were incited by relig- 
ious zeal ; some were inspired with military 
The results of .^j-([qy : others desired to better their condition : 

Ills SD66Clli 

still others were attracted by the promise of 
the remission of penance. In the minds of many the va- 
rious motives combined, and it is impossible to say which 
was the most powerful incentive. Although the under- 
taking had been begun for the purpose of carrying aid to 
the Greek empire, the Pope and the crusaders subordinated 
this purpose to the plan of reconquering Jerusalem and of 
obtaining possession of the Holy Land. 

During the winter of 1095-109G members of the Church 
were busily engaged in preaching the crusade. Peter the 

Hermit was the most active and the most suc- 
Peter the cessful.^ He journeyed through the middle of 

France to Paris, and from there to Cologne, 
preaching to the people as he went. Everywhere he met 
with an enthusiastic reception, and found many recruits 
who abandoned their homes and followed him. 

The Pope had fixed August 15, 1096, as the date of de- 
parture for the crusaders, but the men who followed Peter 
were too impatient to wait. One band set off on April 15 ; 
a second, led by Peter himself, a few days later ; three 

* See the description of Peter in Translations and Reprints, vol. i, 
No. 3, p. 20. 



THE CRUSADES 



109 



others followed in rapid succession. These bands were 
composed of men, Avomen, and children, mostly French and 
Germans ; there were comparatively few knights. The 
greater part of the host which started with 
The first bands ppj^gj. were from the city of Cologne and its 

of crusaders . tit i 

Vicinity ; as he marched through Germany two 

bishops and over twenty knights joined him. These bands 
marched across Germany, through Hungary and Bulgaria, 
and down to Constantinople. Many per- 
ished by the way, some were driven back, 
and those who reached Constantinople 
were so disorderly that the emperor urged 
them to cross over into Asia Minor, where 
most of them were slaughtered by the 
Turks. 

During the summer and fall of the 
year 1096 the great nobles and the real 
army of crusaders set out for the Holy 
Land. The most noteworthy leaders 
were Godfrey of Bouillon, who after- 
ward became the ruler of Jerusalem, 
and Bohemond, the son of Eobert Guis- 

card. The host was com- 
The real army, i r> <> n n 

"^ posed or men from all the 
nations of western Europe, but French 
and Xormans were most numerous. They 
marched by different routes, and did not 
join together into one army until they 
reached the city of Nicsea in the sum- 
mer of 1097. The army may then have 
numbered some hundreds of thousands, 
if all the monks, women, children, and camp-followers were 
included; but the effective force probably did not amount 
to over 100,000 men. This number, however, would have 




DiTKE Robert of 

NORMANDY.I 



' In Gloucester Cathedral. 



110 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

been amply sufficient for the conquest of Asia Minor, Syria, 
and Palestine, if the Greek emperor had given efficient aid, 
and if discipline had been maintained among the crusaders. 
Alexius had asked for assistance, but had not counted 
upon the coming of such a host. Moreover, he was alarmed 
when he heard that his old enemy Bohemond was 

Alezius and the ^j^|^ j-]-^g crusaders ; but the opportunity was too 
crusaders. . ' i r j 

tempting to be neglected, and he determined 

to use the army for his own purposes. As the leaders ar- 
rived separately at Constantinople, Alexius endeavored to 
obtain from each one an oath of vassalage, so that all the 
conquests might be subject to the imperial authority. The 
emperor used every means to elfect this ; he tried in turn 
violence, bribery, and promises. He succeeded finally in 
obtaining some kind of an oath from every leader, but in 
doing so he aroused a feeling of bitter animosity among 
the crusaders. After Xica3a had been besieged and prac- 
tically captured by the crusaders, the latter found them- 
selves deprived of their booty by the emperor, who had 
persuaded the citizens to surrender to him. The lead- 
ers, whom he bribed, " withdrew with kindly feelings, 
others with different emotions." After this the crusaders 
received no aid from the emperor, and many came to re- 
gard him as an enemy. 

From Nicsea the army proceeded slowly to Antioch, 
which was taken after a siege of over seven months, and 
then to Jerusalem, which was captured July 15, 1099. 
There had been many delays due to the lack of discipline 
in the army and to the desire of the chiefs to make con- 
quests for their own advantage. A participant complained 
that " each one wished only the greatest possible advantage 
to himself, and thought not at all of the com- 

Themarclito ^^^^^ good." Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, 
Jerusalem, '^ ' . . 

had left the army in order to obtain possession 

of Edessa. Bohemond had remained at Antioch", which he 

had secured, and was more intent upon building up a strong 



THE CRUSADES 111 

principality there than upon aiding in the capture of Jeru- 
salem. Others had deserted the host for the sake of hold- 
ing fortresses which they had captured; nuiny more had 
grown disheartened because of the dangers and privations 
on the long march, and had returned home. There had 
been no recognized head to the army, and no means of re- 
straining the individual crusaders ; each one had done just 
as he pleased. 

After conquering Jerusalem the crusaders elected God- 
frey " Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulcher." When 
he died, in the following year, his brother Baldwin was 
elected king. Conquests were added to the kingdom from 
time to time until it included most of the cities and vil- 
lages near Jerusalem. In addition the county of Tripoli, 
the principality of Antioch and the county of Edessa 
were held by the Franks.^ From north to south the ex- 
treme length of the states founded by the 
The kingdom of ^rusaders was about 525 miles ; the breadth 

Jerusalem. 

was, except in the north, 50 miles or less. 
Much of this territory was rocky and barren, and the fer- 
tile portions along the coast and those in the interior were 
separated by mountains. There were Mohammedan cities 
and fortresses scattered along the whole eastern frontier, 
and no Christian city was distant more than a day's ride 
from some Mohammedan stronghold. Consequently border 
raids were very frequent. 

Their position forced the Franks to depend to a great 
extent upon the natives, whom they were obliged to em- 

T ^. ploy constantly. The crusaders were relatively 

Intimate asso- . "^ ... 

elation with the few in number and were engaged in military 

natives. service or in commerce. Their lands were cul- 

tivated by the native Syrians, who were either Christian or 
Mohammedan ; their houses were built and their churches 
adorned by Greeks or Armenian architects and artists ; 



* A collective name for all the men from the West. 



THE CRUSADES 113 

their sick were doctored by the Jewish or Arab doctors ; 
their merchants traded extensively with all the natives. 
In warfare the Mohammedans and the westerners learned 
to respect each other's valor ; in times of peace they min- 
gled freely with each other and sometimes intermarried. 
In these various ways the Franks were brought into con- 
stant and intimate association with the more advanced 
civilizations of the East. They acquired new tastes, new 
habits, and new ideals, and Avhen they returned they intro- 
duced these into their homes. 

The success of the Christians in the early decades of 
the twelfth century caused the Mohammedans to unite in 
self-defense. Zangi, the ruler of Mosul, was the 
Jrnsade"'"^ first to check the advance of the Christians. He 
was engaged from 1127 to 1143 in making him- 
self supreme over all the Moslem lords in the North. He 
then turned his forces against Edessa, which he captured 
in 1144. The news of the fall of this city aroused the in- 
habitants of western Europe to renewed exertions. Louis 
VII of France and Conrad III of Germany led great armies 
to the Holy Land, but dissensions among the Christians 
caused the entire failure of the expedition, and the kings 
returned without having accomplished anything. Some 
imputed their failure to the treachery of the Greek em- 
peror, but the majority blamed some of the Franks who 
lived in the Holy Land, and during the next forty years 
requests for aid were received coldly in the West. 

' It is customary to give numbers to certain crusades, namely : the 
first, 1096-1099; the second, 1147-1149; the third. 1189-1192; the 
fourth, 1202-1204; the fifth, 1228-1229; the sixth, 1248-1254. But 
there were many other great expeditions, notably the crusade of 1101 ; 
the German crusade. 1197; the crusade against Damietta, 1217-1221 ; 
and the second crusade of St. Louis. 1270. Almost every year in the 
twelfth century bands of pilgrims or crusaders went to the Holy Land 
for a stay of a few months or longer. Even after the fall of Acre in 
1291 crusades still continued to be preached, but these were not exclu- 
sively, or even mainly, against the Mohan'medans. 




114 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

Although it has never been possible to determine the 
exact truth, it is probable that the failure of the second 
crusade was due to the attitude of certain 
i?thrkiJgdom! Franks settled in the East. For many of the 
crusaders did not wish to wage war, but pre- 
ferred to maintain cordial relations with the Moslems. 
There had been a great change in the character of the 
Franks who settled in 
the Holy Land. The 
early crusaders had been 
mainly Normans and 
men from the North 
who loved fighting for ^oin of Bohemond. 

its own sake. Those (Obverse and reverse.) 

who had come later 

were to a great extent Italians and men from the south of 
Europe, who were interested in commerce and consequently 
desired peace. In general, after the second crusade, the 
majority of the Franks who were living in Syria were 
averse to war ; the new arrivals and the military orders of 
the Templars and Hospitallers ^ were the ones desirous of 
fighting with the infidels ; yet even the members of the 
two orders frequently entered into friendly relations with 
the Moslems. The peace party was the more numerous 
and was able usually to maintain peace, but war might be 
caused at any time by some aggression on the Mohamme- 
dans by the war party. 

1 The order of the Templars was founded in 1119 to protect pil- 
grims in Palestine. They took their name from the temple of Solomon, 
near which their original dwelling was placed. The order of the Hos- 
pitallers grew out of a brotherhood to nurse the sick in the hospital of 
St. John the Baptist, established at Jerusalem in 1070. This brother- 
hood was changed into a military order on the model of the Templars. 
Its members were known later as Knights of St. John and Knights of 
Malta. The order still exists with its headquarters at Rome. These 
two orders became the most powerful defenders of the kingdom of 
Jerusalem. 



THE CRUSADES 115 

In 1187, during a period of truce, one of the Frankish 
lords rashly attacked and plundered a Mohammedan cara- 
van. This caused the fall of Jerusalem. For 
J ® ^, ^ most of the Moslems were now united under 

the leadership of Saladin, the great hero and 
the ablest leader whom the crusaders encountered. Aroused 
by this breach of peace, he attacked the Christians, annihi- 
lated their army in a single battle, captured their king, 
and in a few weeks conquered almost all the cities in the 
South, including Jerusalem. 

The news of the fall of the holy city aroused Europe 
from its apathy regarding the crusades. Frederick Bar- 
barossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, 
^^sade ^^^ Richard the Lion-hearted of England took 

the cross and led great armies to the East. 
Frederick died before reaching Palestine and his troops 
separated, some continuing their march as far as Acre and 
others returning home. Eichard and Philip, after a long 
siege, succeeded in recapturing Acre, but quarreled so bit- 
terly that Philip returned home. After his departure 
Richard accomplished nothing of importance, but by his 
personal valor he made a deep impression upon the Mos- 
lems and has become a hero of romance. 

The popes continued to urge the need of a new crusade 
and many thousands took the cross ; but little was accom- 
plished until 1202, when a number of French 
orutadr knights were induced to join in the movement. 

They realized that it was necessary to go by 
sea, and bargained with the Venetians to furnish vessels. 
Tliey met at Venice, but at the time agreed upon compara- 
tively few were present, and these could not pay all the sum 
promised for the vessels. After long delay they were per- 
suaded by the Venetians to earn the balance of the money 
by capturing Zara, a city on the opposite side of the Adri- 
atic which was drawing away trade from Venice. Many of 
the crusaders were opposed to this because Zara was a^ 



116 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 




Coin of Dandolo. 
(Obverse and reverse.) 



Christian city, but were powerless to prevent it. After the 
capture of Zara the crusaders were persuaded by the Vene- 
tians to go to Constantinople with the ostensible purpose 

of reinstating Alexius, " the 
lawful heir," whose father 
had been driven out by a 
usurper. Alexius promised 
a large sum of money and 
offered many inducements. 
Although the Pope ordered 
them not to go to Constan- 
tinople, the majority dis- 
obeyed and succeeded in reinstating Alexius and his father. 
It had been very easy for Alexius when he was an exile to 
make promises, but after he and his father were reinstated 
in power they could not fulfil the agreements. 

Consequently the crusaders attacked and sacked the 
city and established the Latin Empire of Constantinople, 
which lasted for fifty-seven years (1204-1261). By the sack 
they obtained a great amount of booty, but their whole 
conduct was indefensible and criminal. Constantinople 
was a Christian city and had been for centuries the great 
bulwark of Europe against the Turks. It was so weakened 
by this wanton attack that it never regained its strength, 
and in 1453 was captured with comparative ease by the 
Turks. 

Many believed that the crusades had failed because of 
the sinful lives of the crusaders, and that if the pure in 
heart should undertake a crusade under di- 
JrusaS!^''"'' ^^^® guidance they would be successful. This 
feeling led to the children's crusade in 1212, 
when many thousands of boys and girls, with some older 
people, started on a peaceful crusade to convert the Mos- 
lems and to recover Jerusalem. The movement began near 
Paris, and from there extended to the Ehine valley. Most 
of the French children returned home after a few weeks, 



THE CRUSADES 117 

without having left France. The German children marched 
up the Rhine, across the Alps, and down into Italy, expect- 
ing the Mediterranean to open and leave a passage, as the 
Red Sea had done for the children of Israel. Some were 
induced by crafty men to embark in vessels, and were sold 
into slavery to the Mohammedans ; many remained in Italy ; 
the others returned home after some months of wandering. 
This expedition is of importance because it illustrates the 
extent to which the religious zeal for the crusades still ex- 
isted among the people of France and Germany. 

In 1229 Frederick II by diplomacy persuaded the Mos- 
lem ruler to cede Jerusalem to the Christians. Later, St. 
Louis took the cross and attempted to conquer 
a er crusa es. j^gyp^^ ^|-^g chief seat of the Moslem power. 
His campaign began successfully, but eventually he was 
taken prisoner, and compelled to pay a ransom to secure 
his freedom. In 1270 he started on a second expedition, 
which was directed to Tunis, where St. Louis died of the 
plague. During this and the succeeding centuries there 
were many other crusades against the Moslems in the East, 
but none of especial importance. 

After 1229 the Franks held Jerusalem, for jflfteenj^rs, 

and lived on friendly terms with iJie Moalain g. It was a 

period of prosperity for the Christian colonies. 

Loss of the which were the seats of extensive commerce. 

Holy Land. 

wealth, and refinement. But in 1244 a new 
horde of Turks swept over vSyria and Palestine, conquering 
the cities and destroying civilization. The Franks lost one 
stronghold after another until their possessions were re- 
stricted to the single city of Acre. Finally this was cap- 
tured by the Turks, in T^oi o.-,'^ <j-^. .-.usad. rs were com- 
pelled to withdra • .ud which they had !■ '^ 
nearly two centui 

It is very diffic ;^ termiiK-- 

crusades influence . >^ .,.. ii-Li, 

and thirteenth ce ^ —oe iu every 

9 



118 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

country, and it is possible in many instances to attribute 
these in part to the influence of the crusades. Thus, 
although the great increase in the power of the kings of 
France ^ was not caused by the crusades, the kings profited 
by the absence of the adventurous and ambitious men who 
went on crusades. There were undoubtedly fewer private 
irs when so many turbulent knights had left France, 
id this was a positive blessing. The position of the 
French peasants was not changed materially 
li-sultsofthe ]|3y ^ije crusades, but after the first the evils of 
overpopulation, which had been so great in 
L e eleventh century, were no longer felt. Food was more 
enty, and labor in greater demand. In many ways, 
' lich will be apparent in the following chapters, the cru- 
des aided in effecting results which were due mainly to 
<'iher causes. 

Of the direct results the most important was the broad- 
■ ! ing of the intellectual horizon. Hundreds of thousands 
' men, women, and children took part in the various cru- 
sades. They came from all the countries of western Eu- 
i.'.jpe, and in their travels were brought into contact with 
Tjiany different nations and civilizations. They acquired 
w tastes and new ideas. They lost many of their 
,- ejudices against foreigners and foreign ways when they 
' 've brought into actual contact with them. In fact, they 
ofited by one -of the most effective means of education — 
; ivel in foreign lands. As the people who stayed at home 
re eager to hear of the strange lands and adventures, 
ems and histories of the crusades were written in the 
vernacular, and thus more people shared in the 
I: siiectual intellectual awakening. Some additions to 

■r f . ance. '^ 

their knowledge were made ; for instance, the 

isaders learned the use of windmills, and soon these 

re scattered ove^ all western Europe. The crusaders 



See Chapter XVIII. 



THE CRUSADES 119 

also learned to like spiced foods, and consequently spices, 
which had been very rare before, came into common use. 
But more important than the special acquisitions was the 
general broadening influence. Yet even the great intellec- 
tual advance during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 
was not due wholly to the crusades ; it had begun before 
the first crusade. In history it is seldom possible to attrib- 
ute any great change to a single cause. 

A second very important result was the impetus to com- 
merce. Many of the crusaders went by sea, and large ves- 
sels were built to carry them, their horses, and their sup- 
plies. The vessels, on their return, furnished a ready 
means of carrying commodities to the West. The cost of 
transportation was almost eliminated, as many of the ves- 
sels would have been compelled to return empty, if they 
had not secured these commodities. The crusaders in the 
Holy Land needed supplies from the West ; those who re- 
turned home desired the luxuries with which they had 
become acquainted in the East. As crusaders in larger or 
smaller numbers were going to the Holy Land by sea each 
year, an active trade was maintained, and the people in the 
West gradually learned to use and need the Oriental prod- 
ucts. As long as the Syrian seaports were held by the 
Christians, it was from these cities that Europe obtained 
spices, sugar, silks, glassware, dyestuffs, and many other 
commodities which w6re brought from China, 
Enricliment i^dia, and Arabia. The Italian ports furnished 

of Europe. '■ 

most of the vessels, and profited especially by 
tliis trade. From Italy the eastern commodities were car- 
ried over the Alps and down the rivers to the German, 
French, and Flemish cities. From the latter many wares 
were shipped to England. This trade enriched the inhab- 
itants of the cities and aided in the rise of the third 
estate.^ 

» See Chapter XIV. 



120 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

This commerce necessitated an abundant supply of 
money. Before 1204 the crusades did not bring into west- 
ern Europe any great additions to the actual 
Increased use gtock of ffold and silver, but they caused almost 

of money. ° . "^ 

all the existing stock to be used as money. 

When the nobles made their preparations to leave home 
they needed supplies and equipments for their journey. 
They obtained money to buy these by selling or mortgaging 
their fiefs, or by selling privileges to citizens and others. 
The gold and silver which had been hoarded, often in the 
shape of ornaments, were turned into money to pay for the 
lands or privileges. The churches and monasteries used 
much of their wealth in this way, and became more wealthy 
by buying fiefs at a low price. The money which was 
brought into use circulated rapidly, and furnished the capi- 
tal for trade. All the western countries were enriched ; 
the kings, the churches, and the cities shared in this pros- 
perity more than the nobles. 

Heraldic devices and family names came into use during 
the time of the crusades and mainly from the conditions 
„ , ,. , . in the Holy Land. When clad in armor, knights 
and family could not be distinguished easily from one an- 

names. other. As a rule, each one had to adopt some 

device by which his fellows could tell him in battle. The 
sprig of broom-plant,^ from which they took their name, 
marked the Plantagenets. In the Holy Land this custom 
was widely extended, and resulted in armorial bearings. 
Many of the terms in heraldry betray their Eastern origin, 
as they are merely Arabic words taken over into French. 

Family names developed rapidly in the Holy Land for 
the same reason. When there were many knights named 
Gilbert, or Godfrey, or Stephen, it was necessary that each 
one should be known by some distinctive epithet. In his 
own home, where the knight was all-powerful, where he 



* Planta genesta. 



THE CRUSADES 121 

was living, for the most part, at his castle in the country, 
it had been entirely unnecessary for him to have any dis- 
tinguishing name ; Lord Hugh or Lord Gilbert represented 
something very definite ; but in the crusading hosts each 
one had to have some distinctive epithet. These names 
were derived from personal peculiarities or from the place 
in which the men had lived previously. Broadhead, Strong, 
White, Byfield, Atwater, will suggest such derivations. 
Other names came from the occupations in which the men 
had been engaged ; Smith and Clark (clerk) are the most 
common examples. 

References 

The best general work in English is Archer and Kingsford: 
Crusades (Nations; New York, 1895). Oman: Byzdittlne Empire^ 
chaps, xxi-xxiii, is valuable for the Greeks and their connection 
with the crusade. Translations and Reprints, vol. i, No. 2, contains 
the speech of Urban and other material for the crusades ; vol. i, No. 
4, contains letters of the crusaders; vol. iii, No. 1, sources for the 
fourth crusade. Lane-Poole: Salad in (Heroes \ New York, 1898) is 
excellent. For the results: Archer and Kingsford, chap, xxviii; 
Adams: European Mstori/ (New York, 1899), pp. 217-223. 

Kings op Jerusalem, 1100-1187 

Baldwin I, 1100-1118. Amalric, 1162-1174. 

Baldwin II, 1118-1131. Baldwin IV, 1174-1185. 

Pulco of Anjou, 1131-1143. Baldwin V, 1185-1186. 

Baldwin III, 1143-1162. Guy of Lusignan, 1186-1187. 



CHAPTER XII 

The Monastic Orders 

Summary. — During the period of the crusades many monastic orders 
were founded. Cluny was the most influential monastery, and the 
model chosen by many of the others. In pai'ticular, the " Congregation 
of Cluny" established a new feature of great importance for the future 
influence of the religious orders. France was the especial home of these 
new orders, and tlie Cistercians became the most famous. This was 
due chiefly to Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, who became 
the leading man in Europe. The reform movement ailected not merely 
the monks, but also the priests who were the guides of the people, and 
led to the establishment of canons regular. 

DuRiisrG the age of the crusades there was a wonderful 
increase in the number of monks. The same religious fer- 

X . vor which led many to take the cross caused 

Increase m -^ 

number of others to enter monasteries. Many new orders 

monasteries. ^^ monks Were founded, because the spirit of 
asceticism,^ which was so prominent a factor in medieval 
religion, led men and women to desire a life of stricter dis- 
cipline and greater privations than the rule of Benedict ^ 
had prescribed. This movement was most pronounced in 
France, where many of the new orders originated, but it 
affected every country of western Europe. 

In order to understand the monastic movement, it is 

' The practise of discipline and self-denial as a religious duty. 

^ Benedict of Nursia, who died in 543, wrote the rule which was 
followed by the great majority of monks throughout the middle ages. 
This rule prescribed humility, poverty, and manual labor for its fol- 
lowers. 

123 



THE MONASTIC ORDERS 123 

necessary to go back to the foundation of Cluny, a Bene- 
dictine monastery in Burgundy. During the internal wars 
and invasions of the latter half of the ninth 
Foundation of century many monasteries had fallen under 
the power of worldly men, who used their po- 
sitions to satisfy their own ambition or greed. The life of 
the inmates became less strict, and the work of education 
was to a great extent abandoned. The wealth which had 
been accumulated was used for the enjoyment of the monks 
or to satisfy the worldly ambition of their rulers. The 
feudal nobles who had usurped power in the various dis- 
tricts tried to obtain control of the monasteries, and when 
they succeeded in doing so, used their power for the pur- 
pose of private gain. Sometimes they appointed as abbots ^ 
their children or their retainers. In order to counteract 
these evils, tlie monastery of Cluny was founded in 910, and 
was placed under the direct supervision of the Pope. No 
other power, lay or clerical, was to exercise any authority 
over it or to interfere in any way with the freedom of its 
monks. 

At Cluny the life of the monks was regulated by the 
rule of St. Benedict ; but as it had an ample endowment, 
manual labor was not necessary, and was in- 
Reforms of sisted upon Only to preserve a spirit of humil- 
ity. The monks were required to make bread, 
to do weeding, and to perform other duties which did not 
consume a great amount of time. Their days were spent 
mainly in religious services, in the copying of manuscripts, 
in studying both sacred and profane literature, and in 
teaching others. The last was held to be very important, 
and Cluny soon became one of the great centers of educa- 
tion in the west of Europe. The revenues not actually 
needed for the support of its members were devoted to 
charity. As many as seventeen thousand poor people re- 

1 The abbot was the head of the monastery. 



124: MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

ceived assistance in a single year during the latter half of 
the eleventh century. In a time of famine the sacred ves- 
sels were sold in order to provide food for the starving 
peasants. 

In the earlier centuries, whenever a monastery had be- 
come overcrowded, a new and independent establishment 
had been founded, but the offshoots were in no 
The congrega- ^^.^y g^b-ject to the parent house. If the dis- 

tionofCluny. ■ i- -f . ^ ... ^ 4^ n i 

ciplme became lax, or it a monastery lell under 
a dissolute ruler, there was great difficulty in correcting 
the evils. CI any adopted the plan of keeping all its new 
foundations under the rule of its abbot. Officers, known 
as priors, who were subordinate to him, were appointed to 
rule the different houses ; they were required to report reg- 
ularly, and their monasteries were visited frequently by the 
abbot. This plan worked so well that many independent 
houses were affiliated, and the collective body was known 
as the Congregation of Cluny. In the middle of the twelfth 
century this was composed of over two thousand monas- 
teries, situated in different countries, but all directed by one 
abbot. The members of this great congregation, which 
possessed enormous wealth and influence, worked as a unit 
to carry out the policy and to effect the reforms which the 
Cluniacs desired. 

In particular, they tried enthusiastically to reform the 
Church and to free it from all control by kings or feudal 

nobles. They believed that the power of the 
Th.e ideals of Pope should be increased and established more 

firmly over all Christians. They thought that 
members of the clergy should be wholly free from all 
worldly interests, and should devote themselves entirely to 
the service of the Church. Accordingly, they sought to 
root out simony, to compel the priests to live a life of 
celibacy, and to prevent lay rulers from exercising any con- 
trol over elections to clerical offices. They were of very 
great assistance to the popes in the investiture struggle — 



126 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

iu fact, the ideas which Hildebrand attempted to put 
into practise were the outgrowth of the ideals held at 
Cluny. 

This impetus for reform was felt, widely in England, in 
Germany, and especially in Italy. In the last-named coun- 
try, about 1018, St. Eomuald founded the order 
c^'^^^d^ii ^^ Camaldoli,^ which became a great support 

to the papacy, and held much the same posi- 
tion for Italy that Cluny did for France. Among its most 
famous members were Peter Damiani, a reformer and 
writer of the eleventh century, and Gratian, the author of 
the Decretum.^ 

France was the country which was most 2:)rofoundly 
affected, and new orders were founded there with great 
rapidity. The order of Grammont ^ was estab- 
lished in 1073 by Stephen, a nobleman who had 
been especially influenced by the example of the hermits 
whom he had seen in Italy. After his return to France he 
led a life of the most extreme asceticism for fifty years, 
eating nothing but bread and drinking only water. Others 
were attracted to him by his holiness and imitated his aus- 
terities, so that he soon had many followers. St. Stephen 
did not wish them to be called monks, but merely "good 
men." They were to practise absolute poverty, and were to 
have nothing to do with the management of any property 
which the order held. This last provision was disastrous, 
for the lay brethren who were in charge of the property 
attempted to control the " good men." This caused inter- 
nal strife, and led to the ruin of the order. 

The Carthusian* order was founded in 1084 by St. 
Bruno, who, like St. Stephen, sought to establish a more 

^ Camaldoli was a monastery in the Apennines, near Arezzo. 
2 See Chapter XVI. 
^ TTear Limoges. 

^ Derived from Chartrcux, the name given to the spot where the 
order originated. 




.„■•'■Vy■■■»;^, >, ' 






Longitude East 2 from Greenwich 4 



128 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



ascetic form of life than that followed in the Benedictine 
monasteries. He chose for his dwelling a spot in the moun- 
tains remote from human habitation; his fol- 
ar usians. lowers were to wear haircloth shirts, to eat the 
most meager food, to live in almost perpetual silence, and 
to engage in manual labor. Each monk had his own cell, 
where he worked, ate, and slept ; meditation and prayer 
were his most important occupations. But St. Bruno or- 
dered them also to study and copy manuscripts. The order 
increased rapidly in numbers, and 
soon its houses were scattered over 
all western Europe. In France, each 
of their homes was called a Char- 
treuse ; in England, a Charter-house. 
Although they obtained great wealth, 
they continued the life enjoined by 
their founder. Their magnificent 
buildings still attest the greatness 
of their order. 

The preaching of the crusades 
caused many to repent and to en- 
deavor to lead a more 
Christian life. Peter 
the Hermit, the great 
preacher of the first 
crusade, was especially successful in 
reforming evil customs. Each new 
summons to the aid of the Holy 
Land caused a reformation in man- 
ners and a greater religious fervor. Many who came under 
the spell of the preacher preferred to atone for their sins 
by entering a monastery rather than by going on a crusade, 
with which so many worldly motives were combined. A 
monk, who lived in the early part of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, said thnt of the thousands who were converted at 
the time of the second crusade by St. Bernard's preaching, 



Impetus to 
monasticism 
from tlie 
crusades. 




PILC4KIM. 



THE MONASTIC ORDERS 129 

those who were worthy were sent by him into monasteries, 
the others were ordered to go to the aid of the Holy Land. 
Although this statement is not strictly accurate, it repre- 
sents what actually took place on many occasions, because 
of the conviction that it was more holy to take the monas- 
tic vows than to go on a crusade. 

There were many other new orders, of which the most 
important was the Cistercian,^ founded in 1099. Its mem- 
bers were to lead a life of extreme asceticism, 
wholly apart from the world. The abbeys or 
monasteries were to be built far from cities, and were to 
possess only such property as could be cultivated by the 
monks. Xothing was to be allowed which would bring 
the latter into contact with secular affairs. They were 
never to take charge of parishes nor to teach schools. Edu- 
cation was not necessaiy for them — it was enough if they 
could say a few prayers. They were to cook their own 
meager repasts. Their churches were to be wholly witliout 
ornamentation ; they were to have bare walls, no stone tow- 
ers, no stained-glass windows, no organs, and no gold or 
silver crosses. Everything must be reduced to the bare ne- 
cessities. Their robes were to be of undyed woolen cloth, 
and consequently were of a grayish-white color ; hence the 
Cistercians, in contrast with the black-robed Cluniacs, were 
styled the white monks. This extreme asceticism answered 
the needs of the age, and the order soon became even more 
highly revered and influential than Cluny. 

This success was due in great part to St. 
Clairvanx. Bernard, who was for a quarter of a century 

the most influential man in Europe. Born of a 
noble family, he entered the Cistercian order in his youth, 
and distinguished himself at once by piety and zeal. His 
enthusiastic persuasions induced his brothers and relatives, 

^ Derived from the original house at Citeaux, between Dijon and 
Chalon. 



130 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

to the number of thirty, to join the order. His absolute 
faith and intense love of asceticism made of him a per- 
fect monk ; his eloquence, piety, and ability caused him 
to become the arbiter between kings and rival popes. His 
keen knowledge of affairs, excellent judgment, and execu- 
tive ability caused his aid to be sought on every important 
occasion ; he responded to every call and gave his services 
wherever they were needed because he felt it to be a duty ; 
but he longed passionately to return to his cell apart from 
the world. He had a great contempt for study and for 
appeals to the human reason, believing that faith was all- 
sufficient and knowledge unnecessary. He did all in his 
power to oppose the growth of the schools at Paris. In 
one sermon before the students he exclaimed, " Flee from 
Babylon and save your souls " ; whereupon twenty of the 
students left all and followed him to become monks. It is 
difficult to understand his complex character, but in study- 
ing his life it is easy to see that he was a man of a singu- 
larly lovable character and of commanding ability ; one of 
the world's great men. 

He founded the monastery of Clairvaux, which became 
the model for the whole Cistercian order. When two 
rival popes were elected, in 1130, St. Bernard declared in 
favor of Innocent II, who had received the smaller number 
of votes, but whom he considered the more worthy. By 
his eloquence he persuaded Louis VI of France, Henry 
I of England, and the emperor, Lothair, of Germany, to 
accept the candidate whom he favored. He won over the 
Milanese, and after eight years of papal schism had the 
satisfaction of seeing Innocent recognized by the whole 
Church. This was acknowledged by all contemporaries 
to be the work of Bernard alone. He also 
reconciled the emperor, Lothair, with the 
Hohenstaufens, who had opposed his claims. He estab- 
lished peace between Genoa and Pisa, which were bitter 
rivals. He was influential in getting papal recognition for 



THE MONASTIC ORDERS 131 

the Knights Templar, and the greater part of their rule 
was his work. He preached the second crusade and in- 
duced the emperor, Conrad, of Germany, to take the cross. 
Conrad at first refused to do so, but could not withstand 
the eloquence of Bernard ; astonished at his own action, 
the emperor called his sudden change of heart a " miracle 
of miracles." Bernard was foremost in every work of re- 
form and in combating the heresies of the day. In fact, 
from 1125 to 1153, although he held no official position, he 
was the arbiter in political affairs and the leader in spirit- 
ual thought for all western Europe. His last act was the 
establishment of peace at Metz, where the nobles and citi- 
zens were engaged in murderous combat. This journey, 
undertaken while he was seriously ill, caused his death, 
August 20, 1153. Comparatively early in his career his 
health had been undermined by the austerities which he 
practised and by the fatiguing life of action which he led ; 
nothing but an indomitable spirit had enabled him to ac- 
complish so much work. 

St. Bernard was only one of many monks who influ- 
enced profoundly the spirit of the age in which they lived. 
Gregory VII, the great opponent of Henry IV, 
Urban II, who started the crusading move- 
ment, and many other great men, illustrate the services of 
the monasteries in educating the leaders of human thought. 
In the twelfth century monasticism was in the popular 
estimation the most holy mode of life ; and even compara- 
tively obscure individuals were revered because they led 
lives of privation. The growth of the fable which ascribed 
to Peter the Hermit the credit for the first crusade can be 
traced in great part to the desire to glorify the monastic 
profession, of which he was a member. For the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries formed an age in which sharp con- 
trasts were common. It was not at all unusual for a brutal 
warrior, laden with sin, to flee from the world and to do 
penance in a monastery for the evil life he had led. At a 



132 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



time wlion the exactions of the feudal lords were almost 
unbearable, the charity of the monks shone out conspicu- 
ously. In a world where might made right, and the nobles 
seemed bent wholly upon sating their passions, the example 
of the ascetic monks was remarkably attractive. 

The reverence of the people caused them to make gifts 
to the monasteries, and the more strict and holy the life in 
any order was, the greater the wealth 
which it received. This wealth and 
the power exercised by the abbots 
attracted ambitious men to the or- 
ders. Generally the privations were 
gradually lessened and the duties 

^ , . n neglected. The Cister- 
Why the influ- ^ . . „ , . 

enceofthe ciaus, m spite of their 

monks declined, strict rulc, became enor- 
mously wealthy, and engaged in 
secular business ; in the thirteenth 
century a large part of the woolen 
trade in England was in their hands. 
As their property increased their vir- 
tues became less conspicuous. Fur- 
thermore, Bernard of Clairvaux, in 
spite of his wonderful success, was 

really struggling against the current of the age. The crav- 
ing for knowledge and the development of the human rea- 
son against which he strove were becoming more and more 
dominant. The increasing wealth of Europe and the ab- 
sorption of interest in temporal affairs were to render many 
of his other ideals obsolete. But the monastic spirit, which 
he inculcated, has always found disciples, and the monks of 
his age have always received their due meed of admiration 
and reverence. 

The spirit of asceticism and reform was not confined 
wholly to the monks, who lived apart from the world. It 
was felt to be quite as important that the secular clergy 




Letter-Caeriee. 



THE MONASTIC ORDERS 133 

who guided the people should be raised to a higher stand- 
ard. A beginning was made with the cathedral and col- 
legiate chapters. A cathedral chapter was composed of 
the clergy who were attached to the cathedral of a bishop. 
A collegiate chapter was composed of the clergy in towns 
which had no bishop. Many chapters had acquired great 
jDOSsessions, which were divided into separate portions 
called prebends, and assigned to the members to supply 
their needs. Following the custom of the age, many of 
the holders of these prebends were living as feudal lords. 
The reformers desired to recall them from their secular 
pursuits and to make them live in common under a rule. 
_, „ At first there was great resistance, as the preb- 

Eeguiar : the endaries, or holders of the prebends, were 
Chapters, unwilling to resign their wealth and power ; 

but in the course of time many chapters adopted the rule 
of St. Augustine,^ and came to be known as Canons Eegu- 
lar, or Augustinian Canons, or Austin Canons. This rule 
commanded the observance of many monastic customs, 
and also the care of souls — that is, the canons were to be 
priests and were to officiate in the churches. 

Not content with the slow progress in the chapters, and 

feeling the need of more men to guide and serve the people, 

Xorbert and others founded orders of canons. 

Premonstraten- rpj^g most noted was the Premonstratensian, 

sianSi 

established at Premontre,^ about 1121, by Nor- 
bert. Its members, who were also known as Austin Canons, 
lived under a rule of great strictness, were compelled to 
take the monastic vows and to perform manual labor, and, 
in addition, to undertake pastoral cares. Separate mon- 
asteries for women were established. The order met with 
great favor, and Premonstratensian abbeys rose rapidly in 

' The rule which was believed to have been framed by St, Augustine, 
bishop of Hippo, who dted in 430. 
' Not far from Laon. 
10 



134 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

the different countries ; this order was foremost in mis- 
sionary work among the Slavs beyond the river Elbe. Most 
of the orders founded later were patterned after the Canons 
Kegular, in combining the monastic life with the pastoral 
care. This fitted them particularly for their usefulness, 
and also led to a decline in the importance of the older 
orders which did not undertake the care of souls. 

References 

Tout: Empire and Papacy, chap. ix. Storrs: Bernard of Clair- 
vaux (New York, 1893), Lecture 8. Milman: Latin Christianity, 
vol. iv (London, 1867), pp. 301-313. Jessopp: Coming of the Friars 
(New York, 1892), chap. ill. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Life of the Nobles (Twelfth, and Thirteenth Centuries) 

Summary. — The castles were the homes of the noble classes, and 
were built in the strongest possible manner, especially to serve as a 
refuge in case of attack. In order to alleviate the misery and blood- 
shed caused by the constant wars, the Church attempted to establish 
the Peace of God and the Truce of God, but with very small results. 
The education of the noble youths and maidens was intended to pre- 
pare them to be lords and mistresses of castles. The gradual refine- 
ment of manners and the influence of the Church led to the ceremony 
of knighthood and the ideals of chivalry. The amusements, too, be- 
caraQ somewhat less coarse ; minstrelsy and tournaments threw a ficti- 
tious glamour over the life of the nobles. The changed ideals of the 
age and the increasing wealth of the other classes caused a decline in 
the importance of the nobility. 

During the invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries 
many castles were bnilt for the protection of the people. 

These consisted usually of a wooden tower, sev- 
Jastl^^^^^ eral stories in heiglit, surrounded by rude walls 

of wood or stone, and ditches. These became 
the homes of the feudal lords, and the centers from which 
they ruled their fiefs. But they were exposed to constant 
danger from fire — especially in times of war. The suzerain 
who wished to conquer rebellious vassals burned their cas- 
tles ; William the Conqueror excelled in this mode of fight- 
ing. As the towers were of wood, they were rebuilt quickly, 
and often reburued as quickly. Consequently the nobles 
began to use stone in place of wood, and gradually the 
massive stone structures of the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies were evolved. 

135 




SECOND STORY 




THIRD STORY 

(there are only three stories in this castle) 




FIRST STORY 




BLOCK PLAN 

approximate 



10 10 20 30 40 BO 

l ii nl I I I I ) 

SCALE OF FEET 

Plan of Castleton Castle. 



LIFE OF THE NOBLES 137 

In attacking a castle, the besieger relied chiefly upon 
siege-engines, or upon starving out the garrison^ In build- 
ing a castle these two elements of danger de- 
Sitiiations for tcmiined its situation and method of construc- 
tion. Siege-engines could be used to best ad- 
vantage only upon level, firm ground. Consequently there 
were three favorite sites for castles — upon a cliff, difficult 
of approach, as the Wartburg ; ^ upon an island, as Chillon ; 
or in the center of a swamp, where the surrounding ground 
was too soft for the heavy engines. If it was not possible 
to secure such natural advantages the castle was surrounded 
by a moat, sometimes containing water, which would have 
to be filled up before the engines could approach the pro- 
tecting walls. 

Frequently there were two or more walls, each one 
formed by building two parallel ramparts of stone a short 
distance apart, and filling in the space between 
^ ' with dirt dug from the moat. This made the 
wall more elastic and better able to withstand the blows 
from a battering-ram. In the center of one side there was 
a single gate. The approach was usually steep, and wide 
enough for only one man. Before the gate there was a 
movable bridge across the moat, which was made especially 
deep at this point ; in the thirteenth century drawbridges 
came into use. The gate itself was flanked by two towers 
for the purpose of defense, as this was the most vulnerable 
point of the castle. At the entrance there was a portcullis, 
usually of massive timbers or of iron, which could be raised 
or lowered. Sometimes there was a second portcullis at the 
other end of the entrance, so that a storming party might 
be delayed and exposed to the cross-fire of the defenders 
within the towers. Other towers were built at intervals, 
projecting from the wall, aud a bow-shot apart, so as to 
protect the intervening portions. 

' Near Eisenach, in Germany. This was Luther's home while he 
■was translating part of the Bible. 



138 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Within the enclosure there were frequently other walls 

separating ii into an outer and one or more inner portions, 

so as to make it difficult for an enemy to reach 
The castlsi 

the actual stronghold. The various towers and 

other buildings were utilized for lodging and storage. But 
the most important parts of a large castle were the donjon 
and keep.^ The former was the ordinary dwelling-place of 
the knight and his fam- 
ily; the latter formed 
a place of refuge if the 
rest of the castle should 
be captured. The keep 
had no windows or doors 
on the first floor, and 
was entered by a mov- 
able ladder. In the low- 
er story the treasures 
were stored and danger- 
ous prisoners were con- 
fined. Within the en- 
closure there was always 
either a spring, or wells, 
or at least a cistern for 
catching rain-water, so 
that the garrison need 

not suffer from thirst. If the enclosure was sufficiently 
large, it contained a garden for vegetables and herbs, a 
poultry yard, and buildings for other animals. The knights 
endeavored to store up enough food to guard against star- 




Ladies' Costumes. 



' Because of an error made long ago, the two chief towers are con- 
fused in ordinary language, and donjon and keep are used interchange- 
ably. Consequently we have formed a false impression of a castle. In 
this book donjon is used for the chief dwelling-place, as it is used by 
German and French historians. Keep is used for the strong tower, 
which is called by the Germans ITaupffhurm, by the French grande 
tour or maitre tour. 



LIFE OF THE NOBLES 139 

vation when besieged. The castle usually contained a 
chapel. Sometimes underground passages were built by 
which secret communication could be maintained with 
the country outside and the garrison might escape in 
time of need ; in some cases, as at Coucy, these were of 
great length. 

The owner of the castle was employed principally in 
managing his estate, in ruling his subjects, in hunting, and 
in fighting. The direction and government of an exten- 
sive fief required a large amount of time. In addition to 
the duties which now rest upon the holder of a similar 
property, the lord then had to administer justice, hold 
court, and police his domain. Hunting was a constant 

necessity, as this was one of the main sources 
Occnpations of ^f supply for the table. Fighting, above all 
tne kmghts, i • j? i i • i 

else, was the occupation of the knight m the 

tenth and eleventh centuries. The kings were usually 
engaged in struggles against rebellious barons ; private 
wars between nobles were incessant. The countries, espe- 
cially France, were devastated by these wars, and the com- 
mon people were reduced to the greatest extremities ; can- 
nibalism was not infrequent in France about the year 1000. 
The Church, as usual, endeavored to institute a reform, 
and from 989 on, various councils in France decreed that 

The Peace of ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ "^^^^ violence toward members of 
God and the the clergy, women, peasants, or merchants, 
Truce of God. . gj^iould be excommunicated. This was called 
the Peace of God, but as its decrees were not heeded, the 
Church formed leagues of peace, which included individu- 
als of all classes sworn to aid in maintaining the peace. 
In 1027, and later, the Church added the Truce of God— 
i. e., that during certain days and seasons there should be 
no fighting at all. At first the truce included only Sun- 
days ; later, other days in each week, church festivals and 
holy seasons, like Lent, were added, until only about eighty 
days in each year remained on which private warfare was 



140 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



allowed. Thus the Peace of God was intended to protect 
certain classes at all times, the Truce to protect all classes 
at certain times. The Church was not able to enforce 
either because of the lawlessness of 
the nobles. 

The wife of a noble had many du- 
ties to perform, for which she was care- 
fully trained from her 

Occupations of ^ t -t ^^ T T->' 1 i> 

the ladies. early childhood. First of 

all she must know how 
to sew and spin flax and silk, as she 
made her own clothes and to a great 
extent the clothes of her husband. 
The coarser work, spinning of wool 
and weaving, was left generally to 
the servants, but this also was un- 
der her direction. Embroidering the 
so-called " tapestries " was a favorite 
occupation, and the completed work 
decorated the halls of the castles on 
festive occasions, graced the tourna- 
ments, or adorned the churches. On the tapestries were 
wrought wonderful representations of animals and men, 
battle scenes, or the adventures of legendary heroes. The 
Bayeux tapestry, which depicts the conquest of England, is 
the best-known example. In addition, a lady was expected 
to have some knowledge of medicine and nursing, in order 
that she might care for the sick in the castle. Finally, 
she had the general management of the whole household, 
and during her husband's absence must be ready to take 
his place ; not infrequently a lady was compelled to defend 
the castle. 

As the daughter was trained for her later duties, so too 
the son was carefully educated, in order that lie might be- 
come a valiant knight. From his earliest boyhood he 
exercised in running, climbing, jumping, riding, swim- 




Statue representing 
Lady. 



LIFE OP THE NOBLES 141 

ming, shooting with a bow, and liurling a spear. At about 
twelve years of age his real education began. It was the 
custom that sons of nobles should be sent to the castle of 
the overlord to receive this education. There 
Education of a they served as pages or squires, running er- 
rands, serving at table, cleaning the weapons 
and armor, and attending the lords at tournaments or in 
battle. They were taught to use different weapons, and 
were expected to show their skill in horsemanship or in 
fighting. In addition, they were encouraged to make verses, 
and sing them to their own accompaniment, as this became 
the fashion toward the end of the twelfth century. 

When the boy became of age he might be made a 
knight if he seemed worthy of the honor. For not even 
p, , , _ a king's son could claim knighthood as a right, 

ferring knight- and in theory it was conferred only as a reward 
^°°^' of merit. It grew out of the old German cus- 

tom of giving a youth his arms in the public assembly, a 
symbol of the fact that he had become a man and a member 
of the tribe. The Church had recognized this custom, and 
endeavored to use it as a means of reforming the feudal 
nobles. To the old German usages it had added Christian 
rites intended to sanctify the profession of knighthood or 
chivalry, and to impose some duties upon each knight. 
It taught that there was a " certain resemblance " between 
knighthood and priesthood, as both the knight and the 
l^riest had taken vows to aid the Church in its work. 

The three essentials in the early ceremony were the 
girding on of the sword, the symbol of his new honor, by 
some knight ; the accolade, or blow on the neck, the sym- 
bol of freedom ; and an exhibition of ability 
The ceremony. , , , t ■ • n 

to use the weapons. In time the ceremony 

became much more complicated, and many religious, sym- 
bolical rites were added. The arms of the future knight 
were blessed and placed upon the altar in some church ; 
the candidate took a bath, the symbol of purity ; " watched 



U2 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



his arms " during a night spent on his knees in prayer ; 
attended mass ; took an oath to fulfil all the duties of chiv- 
alry ; received his sworH and 
the accolade from a knight; 
was clad in armor and with 
the golden spurs by the lords 
and ladies present ; vaulted 
on horseback, and with his 
lance in rest charged against 
the quintaine, or stuffed mani- 
kin, to show his skill. Later, 
the exercises became even 
more elaborate and more fully 
religious. Often on the field 
oi, battle all formality was dis- 
pensed with, and the usages 
were seldom as elaborate in 
Germany or England as in 
France, the especial home of 
chivalry. 

Knighthood was usually 
conferred by the suzerain, and this fact determined to a 
great extent the duties of a knight, which were 
practically the same as those of a vassal, but 
more idealized. The knight ought to be sans 
rejit'oche, brave, generous, and faithful ; he ought to pro- 
tect the weak, to observe his oath faithfully, and to keep 
his honor spotless. 

Chivalry introduced high ideals, but was 
powerless to enforce them among the turbu- 
lent nobles of thef age. Deeds of cruelty and perfidy were 
common even on the part of the best men ; it is only in 
the later centuries that a Bayard ^ arises. But the ideals 




Knight, Thirteenth Century. 



The duties of a 
knight, 



The reality. 



^ Bayard (1476-1523) was so distinguislied by his valor, piety, and 
magnanimity that he was called le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche. 



LIFE OF THE NOBLES 



143 



of chivalry inculcated by the Church and sung by the 
troubadours * were effective in improving the manners and 
in inciting to a more perfect courtesy. 

In the twelfth century it became fashionable to play 

games during leisure hours. Chess, introduced from the 

Mohammedans, was the greatest favorite ; 

Amusements in checkers, backgammon, and dice - throwing 
the castlesi ^ o ' o 

were also popular. Dancing was an ever-wel- 
come diversion. In the large castles dwarfs and jesters, or 
" court fools," were kept for the amusement of the nobles ; 
the fools were allowed, on account of their folly, an un- 




Group of Chessmex, Thirteenth Century. 

limited license in speech, and often belied their reputation 
by the keenness of their wits, which spared no one. They 
were generally adorned with a cap and bells, and fre- 
quently, like the modern clown, were made ridiculous in 
appearance by some device, such as shaving half the head, 
half the beard, and half the mustache. Strolling players, 
who performed acrobatic feats, were sometimes admitted 
to the banquet hall to exhibit their skill. 



' Poets of the twelfth and thirteenth centnries, who lived in south- 
ern France and northern Italy and sang the praises of chivalry. 



144 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

The jongleurs traveled about the country from castle to 
castle, reciting the poems of the troubadours. With mu- 
sical instruments on their backs they would 
US re sy. enter a castle, salute the lord with some poet- 
ical address, and then begin : " My lords, be silent if you 
wish to hear a song such as no other jongleur can sing." 
Then would follow some long-drawn-out narrative in verse, 
of which the theme might be the death of Eoland, the love 
of Tristan and Isolde, the prowess of the Knights of the 
Eound Table, the capture of Troy, or the deeds of the cru- 
saders. In these stories one combat or siege follows an- 
other ; banquets are described with a detail which demands 
the mention of each individual dish ; customs and usages 
are depicted with a photographic minuteness which makes 
it possible to reproduce accurately many features of the life 
in a feudal castle. Occasionally in the enormous mass of 
poetry written by the troubadours there is a real gem, like 
Aucassm and Nicolette. Many of their tales have been 
translated from one language to another, and have been 
retold until they have become a part of the literature of 
modern nations. Who has not read of Eoland and Oliver, 
King Arthur and his knights, or Parsifal ? 

In the intervals of peace, the nobles engaged in tourna- 
ments, or mimic warfare, as their favorite pastime. At first 
these were simple fights in the open fields be- 

TonrnamentSi , • s^ ^ • ^ i. t j.i j.i • 

tweeu two companies oi knights. In the thir- 
teenth century they became elaborate entertainments, man- 
aged by very strict rules. The Church forbade them in 
vain, for they were universally popular ; the kings of France 
were not any more successful in repressing them. In the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries they reached their great- 
est splendor ; and any especial occasion, such as the mar- 
riage of a great lord, was considered a sufficient excuse for 
a tournament, which would attract knights and adventurers 
from all directions. Technically, tournaments were battles 
in which whole bands engaged ; jousts were combats be- 



146 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

tween two knights. One of the reasons for their popularity 

was that they afEorded a great opportunity for making 

money. Each participant, when conquered, forfeited his 

horse and arms to his conqueror, and must redeem his own 

body from captivity. Consequently the combatants were 

seldom killed in tournaments, and the same was true of 

real warfare. The armor protected a knight from many 

dangers ; his value in money as a prisoner, from even more. 

The great carnage on the fields of battle was among the 

squires and foot-soldiers ; in tournaments there was less 

danger to the head than to the purse. An ordinance of 

the king of France, in 1314, forbade tournaments and jousts 

"because of the great destruction and mortality of horses 

and sometimes of persons." On the other hand, the love 

of participating in tournaments frequently ruined a knight s 

fortune. 

The nobles were generally in financial straits, because 
generosity in giving and lavish waste in entertaining were 
regarded as knightly virtues. Every possible 
Prodigality. occasion was seized upon for an entertainment ; 
and none was given without providing costly banquets for 
all who chose to come, and valuable presents for all guests. 
Prodigality was considered a mark of nobility. At the cry 
of " Largesse " ' the listeners showered money, ornaments, 
and garments upon the minstrels. Every messenger must 
be rewarded with a gift ; friends, vassals, and all who came 
must have occasion to praise the liberality of the knight. 
This wastefulness kept even the kings and great barons m 
constant financial difficulties ; but the knight who refrained 
from such a course was despised as a niggard. 

Amid all this extravagance there was a great lack ot 
many things now considered necessities. The inner walls 
were hung with rich tapestries or " Saracen carpets, made 
at Paris, which were especially prized in the thirteenth cen- 

1 A gift-the cry used by minstrels seeking reward for their services. 



LIFE OF THE NOBLES 147 

tury; but the rooms could not be kept wan in winter. 
Every poet sings the joys of spring when tLe earth gets 
warm again. At the banquets the tables 
Contrasts m the gi-Qaned under the rich viands which were 
served m almost endless profusion ; bnt the 
knights and ladies ate with their fingers.^ The same con- 
trast holds true in almost every feature of the life of the 
nobles. 

Their prodigality impoverished them. The increas- 
ing power of the kings, the growing wealth and in- 
fluence of thd merchants, the changed condi- 

Decayofthis tions of life in general, after the thirteenth 
life. ° 

century, caused the nobles on the Continent 
to lose much of their power. Many sought fortunes by be- 
coming condottieri, or mercenary captains, in Italy or where- 
ever war was being waged. Absorbed in the need of gain- 
ing money to maintain their rank, their ideals changed, and 
the life which has been described passed away. The use 
of gunpowder in battle finally rendered the knights and 
their castles equally impotent. 

References 

Castles, see article in Encyclopmdia Britannica^ 9th edition. Edu- 
cation of Knight: Cornish, CMvalry (London, 1901), pp. 58-67. 
Tournaments: Cornish, pp. 101-106. Chivalry: Milman, Latin 
Christianity, vol. iv, pp. 204-211 ; Adams, Civilization, pp. 276, 
277. Truce of God: Translations and Reprints, vol. i, No. 2. Cul- 
ture of the Middle Ages : Robinson, chap. xix. Aucassin and Nico- 
lette is published by Mosher (Portland, Me.). ' 

' In 1297 the king of England owned only one fork. Forks came 
into ccmmon use only in the sixteenth century. 



CHAPTER XIV 

iife of the People (Twelfth, and Thirteenth Centuries) 

Summary. — The common people were expected in the eleventh cen- 
to do all the work and to support the other classes. Most of them 
"} agricultural laborers, living in villages and subject to great hai'd- 
T'S, Gradually their lot improved, although not with equal rapidity 
• 11 countries. The inhabitants of the towns and cities were under 
same restraints as the other peasants. But as they lived by handi- 
ts and trading, they became wealthy more rapidly than the agricul- 
d laborers. They also formed gilds, and thus, as corporate bodies, 
red rights and freedom. 

In the eleventh century the population of Europe was 
ided by contemporaries into three classes : those who 

did the praying, the clergy ; those who did the 
threefold fighting, the nobles ; and those who did the 

work, the common people. The last class, far 
re numerous than the other two combined, had no social 
political importance, and was despised. Its duty was to 
nish the money, food, and clothing for the nobility and 
fgy. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, however, 
members began to obtain rights and to have some in- 
3nce. Their progress may be studied to best advantage 
France, where the advance was more raj^id than in Ger- 
ny or England, but not as rapid as in some parts of Italy 
Spain. From the eleventh century until the fourteenth 
■ population seems to have been increasing rapidly in all 
5tern Europe, but it is not possible to give accurate fig- 
!S, as no census was taken. 

Most of the people were agricultural laborers. They 
148 



LIFE OP THE PEOPLE 149 

were divided into various classes in each country, according 
to the degree of subjection in which they were held. The 
slaves were mere property with no rights ; they 
The agricultu- t^qyq few in number and almost always foreign- 
ers. Above them came the serfs, who held 
small farms, for which they were obliged to perform cer- 
tain services. They were forbidden by law to leave their 
land, and were bought and sold as a part of the estate on 
which they lived. Some serfs, especially those belonging 
to the Church, were in a better position than others ; but 
all were the property of their lord, who might be the king, 
a bishop, an abbot, or other member of the nobility. Above 
the serfs were the so-called " freemen." The name is mis- 
leading, as they too were obliged to perform definite serv- 
ices for their lord ; but these were not so heavy as those de- 
manded of the lower class. Between the serfs and the free- 
men there were many gradations which were very impor- 
tant to the medieval peasants. Some had escaped from 
the obligations of serfdom without attaining the status of 
freemen ; these were designated in the documents by tech- 
nical terms which it is impossible to make clear. The same 
estate had frequently several classes of tenants, carefully 
distinguished because they owed different kinds of services 
and payments. 
n/ The villages in which they lived consisted ordinarily of 
a single street with houses close together on each side. A 

„, .„ little apart from the villasre stood the castle 

The villages. ^ , ° 

or manor-house m which the lord or his repre- 
sentative lived and the domain land, or portion of the 
manor which the lord retained in his own possession to 
supply his family with food. There was usually a church 
with a cemetery at the back and an open space in front. 
Such villages can still be seen in many parts of Germany, 
France, and Switzerland. Around the houses extended the 
fields which the peasants cultivated, and near by were the 
forests in which the lords hunted, as a large part of the 
H 




Kerpen, an Old German Village, with its Farming Lands. 

Tlie land is all divided into small strips, each inhabitant of the village having a 
number of these strips. Those heavily shaded, thirty-six in number, belong to the 
largest farmer there. P is the old village mill. Q is the village common, used for 
pasture. It is the ruin of the medieval castle. The other letters of the alphabet 
indicate the various parts of the village lands having each its local name. The collec- 
tion of dark spots in the center represent the houses of the village. 



LIFE OP THE PEOPLE 151 

land was still covered with woods. The houses Avere wretched 
hovels with only a single room, a single door, and no win- 
dows or chimney. Frequently the domestic animals and 
poultry were given the freedom of the house. 

The land which any laborer held was not all in one 
piece, but was scattered in narrow strips among similar strips 

held by the other peasants. Eacli year only 

two-thirds was cultivated ; the other third was 
allowed to lie fallow. This was necessary, as men did not 
know how to enrich the soil, and consequently it was soon 
exhausted. Under ordinary conditions the yield per acre 
was not more than one-third as much as at the present day. 
Wheat, rye, oats, and barley seem to have been the crops 
most commonly cultivated. Farm animals were small. 
Pigs, which secured their own living by ranging in the 
forests, furnished most of the meat consumed. Bees were 
kept in large numbers, as the expense was slight ; more- 
over, wax was in great demand for candles in the churches, 
and honey was an important food. There was very little 
trade, and each community had to produce almost everything 
that it needed. Grapes were raised for wine in parts of 
France where it is not profitable to grow them at the pres- 
ent day. Each village had to cultivate herbs for use in sick- 
ness, and plants from which dyes could be made. 

In return for their land the peasants had to make pay- 
ments in money or produce and to perform services. These 

varied according to the freedom of each class. 
thf^eas°ants°^ The freeman usually paid fixed amounts at 

definite times and worked on the domain land 
one or more days during the seasons of the year when 
labor was most needed. In theory the serf could be taxed 
as heavily and made to work as much as the lord pleased ; 
but in practise his chief obligations were fixed by the cus- 
tom in each fief. The lord, however, might at any time 
add new burdens and the serfs could make no effective 
opposition. Even under favorable conditions they usually 



152 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

had to work more than half the time for their superiors, 
and to make payments of various kinds. Whenever any 
extraordinary expense was incurred they were compelled to 
furnish the money. 

In the wars, which were frequent, the peasants suffered 
the most severely; their crops were destroyed and their 
villages burned. In times of peace, owing to 
harfsw'^f their ignorance of agriculture, the crops often 

failed wholly or in part. Too much or too 
little rain or heat, and floods, were calamities against which 
it was impossible to guard. In a period of seventy-three 
years during the eleventh century there were forty-eight 
in which the crops in France were deficient. Whole dis- 
tricts suffered from famine, and because of the lack of 
communication between different parts of the same coun- 
try provisions might be abundant in one section while peo- 
ple were starving in another. Pestilence follovved famine 
and swept over the different countries with startling fre- 
quency. But no matter how hard the lot of the peasants 
was, they must make their payments. When their number 
was reduced by famine or pestilence those who were left 
must pay more. How else could the lords live ? The latter 
usually had no consideration for the peasants. Even if 
rabbits ate up their crops no serf was allowed to kill one, 
because all game belonged to the lord. 

At times the misery of the serfs became so great that 
they revolted and killed their lords. This resulted almost 
always in their speedy defeat and punishment ; 
flight. ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ *^® fighting class would make com- 
mon cause against the peasants. More fre- 
quently they fled into the woods to become brigands, or 
else sought new homes ; for, in spite of the law, the serfs 
frequently left their land. The fear of losing his tenants, 
whose services he needed, was a great check upon the lord 
and prevented him from imposing as many burdens as he 

might of1iP'»"n''iaP ViQVP r\f)jxQ, 



i 



LIFE OF THE PEOPLE 



153 



Emancipation 
of serfs. 



The more enlightened tried to attract new tenants and 
to keep those they already had by freeing them from some 
of the most burdensome obligations, especially 
by exchanging for a fixed payment the right to 
demand unlimited services. Lords who needed 
a large sum of money for a crusade or for some other un- 
usual expense sold to their serfs the freedom from certain 
obligations. This custom spread, because to a certain ex- 
tent landholders had to bid against each other for laborers. 
Moreover, emancipation was looked upon as a pious act, 
and many lords, especially upon their death-beds, freed a 
larger or smaller number. Serfs who became members of 
the clergy became free at the same time, and many rose to 
high positions ; there are instances even of their becoming 
popes. By the beginning of the thirteenth century the 
worst features of serfdom had disappeared almost every- 
where in France, and in many parts there were no serfs at 
all. The lot of the peasants continued to be hard, but 
gradually they all became freemen. In most of the other 
countries the serfs, sooner or later, obtained their freedom, 
and usually from the same general causes as in France. 
But in some countries their burdens were 
not removed altogether until the period 
of the French Ee volution or even later. 
The towns as well as the villages 
belonged to the nobles, and the inhab- 
itants were their subjects. 
IT:Z A town was an especially 

valuable piece of property 
and could be sold or given away at the 
owner's pleasure. In fact, it was only 
a larger village which had fortifications 
and was governed by special laws. A city was technically 
the residence of a bishop and belonged wholly or in part 
to the fief which he held. Sometimes a city or town was 
divided between two or more lords, each one owning a part. 




Arms of Paris. 



164 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

The ownership was determined nsually by the way in 
which the town had grown up. Some towns had existed 
from Koman times. Others had grown up 
towns. ° ^ about some center, a castle or a monastery, 
which offered protection and also a market for 
goods. For the growth of towns was due wholly to com- 
merce and manufacturing, although these tei^ms sound 
grandiloquent when applied to the petty barter and home 
industries of the early middle ages. Sometimes during 
the invasions or private wars a village erected fortifications 
and by favoring circumstances became a town. In such 
cases its rise was due to a favorable situation for com- 
merce, to the security afforded by its walls, and lastly to 
the privileges granted by the lord who wished to profit 
by the added j)opulation. In other cases a town was de- 
liberately founded by a lord in some part of his fief by the 
offer of special privileges to any who would settle there. 
Because of their hardships some of the peasants in the 
middle ages, especially in France, were constantly in mo- 
tion, seeking to better their lot. Consequently new settle- 
ments arose rapidly ; some still retain the name of Ville- 
neuve (new town) or Villefranclte (free town).^ 

Within the towns and cities there were houses every- 
where, even on the walls. The streets were narrow, crooked, 
and unpaved. The buildings were crowded 

own e. piQggjy together, and each story projected some- 
what beyond the one below, so that the upper stories al- 
most met and overhung the streets. Within, the homes of 
the richer merchants vied in comfort and luxury with the 
castles of the nobles. At the back there were gardens filled 
with flowers, and the best rooms opened upon these gardens. 
Each shopkeeper hung out his sign with some device rep- 
resenting his trade, for few could read. At dawn the shut- 
ters were taken down, and the streets were filled with peo- 

^ Cf. Villafranca. Neustadt, Freiburg, etc. 



LIFE OF TUE PEOPLE 



155 



pie. Venders of food and dealers in miscellaneous articles 
went about crying their wares. Fights between the ap 
prentices of the different trades were frequent. Each in- 
dustry had its own quar- 
ter, from which the work- 
men would sally forth to 
attack those of another 
quarter, or in which they 
would in turn barricade 
themselves. All daylong 
the streets were the 
scenes of active life and 
varied tumult. At sun- 
set the shops were closed, 
a little later the ange- 
lus ^ rang, and was fol- 
lowed by the curfew.^ 
Soon after the last lights 

in the houses were extinguished, the watchman fastened 
the chains at the ends of each street, and the town slept. 

Festivals were many, and were celebrated with a luxury 
which often surpassed the ostentation of the tournaments, 
for the French towns in the twelfth and thir- 
teenth centuries were very wealthy. The cru- 
sades had given a great impetus to trade and had put into 
active circulation the gold and silver which had been 
hoarded in the preceding centuries. The crusaders in the 
Holy Land needed supplies and equipments from the West. 
Large vessels, built to carry men and supplies to Syria, 
brought back the rich commodities of the East. The men 
who returned had acquired new tastes, and desired luxu- 




ScENE IN A Shop. 



Commerce. 



' A bell rung as a signal for the saying of the prayers which wei's 
known from the opening word as the " Angelas." 

* The bell rung, usually at nightfall, as a signal to cover the fires 
(couvre-feu) and retire for the night. 



156 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

ries with which they had become acquainted in Syria. The 
Mediterranean ports were centers of active trade between 
the Orient and Occident. From these ports the goods were 
carried, mainly on the rivers, all over western Europe. The 
towns along the Ehone and the Ehine and on the seacoast 
in Flanders profited especially from this trade. 

In many places fairs were established under the protec- 
tion of the nobles. These were centers for exchanging the 
products of different parts of the same country 
or of different countries. They were held for 
a few days at a fixed time each year, under very strict regu- 
lations. The Lendit, near Paris, was one of the oldest and 
best known ; it opened on the eleventh of June, and lasted 
a fortnight ; each town in France had a place assigned to 
it on the grounds, where the merchants could display their 
wares. At the fairs of Champagne not only French mer- 
chants but also Italian and Flemish carried on a brisk busi- 
ness. In England there were, in the thirteenth century, 
fifty or more places at Avhich important fairs were held ; 
the most noted were Winchester, Stourbridge, St. Ives, and 
Boston. 

In order to carry on this active trade the merchants re- 
quired good roads, on which they could travel unmolested 
and in safety. In the tenth and eleventh cen- 
Internal turics the roads were very bad, the bridges 

improvements. -' 

were few, and highwaymen were many. At 

the frontier of each fief it was necessary to pay for the priv- 
ilege of entering or leaving. On the rivers tolls were heavy 
and robberies frequent. From the twelfth to the fourteenth 
century conditions improved. The lords found it to their 
advantage to make better highways, to build bridges, and 
to police the routes, since for these services they could de- 
mand heavy payment from the merchants. These charges 
also became fixed, and were no longer exacted at the pleas- 
ure of the lord. Thus traveling became comparatively safe 
and easy. 




BELFRY, BORDEAUX. 



LIFE OP THE PEOPLE 15 Y 

The merchants were able to accomplish these reforms, 
and also to gain influence in other matters, by forming as- 
sociations. The individual was weak, but a 
large number united made a body which even 
the feudal lord found formidable. The advantages of such 
associations were perceived very early, and in each town 
the merchants joined in a gild to regulate aud monopo- 
lize trade and to protect their common interests. These 
" merchant gilds " were able to obtain many privileges 
in exchange for money. Later the artisans in each in- 
dustry banded together to form a craft-gild ; but the lat- 
ter did not become very important until the fourteenth 
century. 

By their wealth and association the townsmen became 
powerful, and were able to obtaiiv^xemptions from many 
burdens. By usurpation, or by purchase, or 
KmefreT' ^^^^^^S periods of political strife, they secured 
one privilege after another, until they were al- 
most, and in some cases entirely, self-governing communities. 
At first they had attempted revolts, but the early ones were 
crushed with great cruelty. When the crusades began 
many lords were glad to raise money by selling privileges 
to the towns. In such cases sometimes a " commune " was 
formed, which was composed of a part of the inhabitants 
and acted as a single body, entering into a contract with 
the lord to pay a fixed amount in return for the rights 
which they desired. In other cases a charter was sold to 
the town, guaranteeing its inhabitants against all illegal 
exactions and granting to them certain privileges. During 
times of civil war the support and wealth of the citizens 
were desired by both parties, who vied with each other in 
offering privileges. Those towns which were owned by two or 
more masters were especially fortunate, as the interests of 
the owners were often conflicting, and resulted in conces- 
sions from both parties to win the support of the in- 
habitants. 



158 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



In Germany and Italy, where the central governments 
were weak, some of the cities became entirely free and very 
_ It • til powerful. Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Pisa 
diiferent obtained great possessions in dili'erent parts of 

countries. f^]^Q Mediterranean. Hamburg, Bremen, and 

Liibeck are still free cities and constituent parts of the Ger- 
man Empire. In France and England, on the other hand. 




Medieval Plaything. 



where the royal power was strong, the citizens obtained ex- 
emption from their burdens, but did not as communities 
become self-governing. 

In the thirteenth century the wealthy merchants were 
no longer despised by the nobility. In the literature of 
the day they began to take a prominent place, 
and, in fact, a new literature, written especially 
for the citizens, began to appear. Individual 
merchants were appointed to office under Philip Augustus 
in France, and the advice of the citizens was often sought 
in enterprises for which their money would be needed. 
Early in the fourteenth century, both in France and in 



The third 
estate. 



LIFE OP THE PEOPLE 159 

England, representative men were summoned to consult 
with the nobles and the clergy. From that time the 
Parliaments were composed of members of the " three 
estates," ^ clergy, nobility, and commons. 

References 

Emerton: Europe, chap. xv. Adams: European History, pp. 
217-223. Adams: CiviUzation, pp. 290-300. Ashley: English 
Economic History (New York, 1892), chaps, i, ii. Cheyney: Indus- 
trial and Social History of England, chaps, ii, iii, iv. Robinson, chap, 
xviii. Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, chap. ii. Cutts : Parish Priests, 
chap. xxix. 

^ Up to this time only the first two estates — the nobles and the clergy 
— had been recognized as having any importance. 



CHAPTER XV 

Schools and Universities 

Summary. — The teaching was done by the members of the clergy. 
In the early centuries it was confined to the trivimn, the guadrivium, 
and theology. In the twelfth century certain centers, especially Paris, 
attracted students, so that education became more extensive and more 
general. Universities came into existence, and the students, as mem- 
bers of the clergy, received many and important privileges. The cur- 
riculum was broadened, and earnest students investigated many new 
branches of knowledge. 

During the early middle ages teaching was done 

wholly by the clergy. In some of the towns and villages 

there were elementary schools taught by the 

C erp the parish priests. In the monasteries and cities 

teacners, ^ ^ 

there were schools, both elementary and ad- 
vanced, under the charge of the abbots or bishops. What- 
ever learning there was north of the Alps was due to the 
labors of the Church. 

It was formerly the custom to refer to the middle ages 
as the dark ages. From their own ignorance of the facts 

historians had thought that the medieval world 
Thedark ^^^ entirely steeped in ignorance and barba- 

ages," J 1 o ^ 

rism, that there was no learning even among 

the churchmen, and that all society was in a state of chaos. 

]^ow that the facts are known, the term " dark ages" has 

been abandoned, or, if used, is applied only to the time 

between the breaking up of the Eoman Empire and the 

eleventh century or, still more narrowly, to the period 

of the invasions in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the 

160 



SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 



161 



history of education in Christian Europe the latter was the 
darkest age, Charles the Great had been anxious to edu- 
cate his subjects, and under his rule schools had been es- 
tablished in many monasteries and towns. Italian, Eng- 
lish, and Scotch, as well as native scholars, were induced 
to become the teachers of the Franks. During the period 
of the invasions learning was maintained only in a few 
favorable localities. In the latter years of the tenth cen- 
tury, especially in Germany, there was a reawakening, and 
teaching in the monastery schools became more common. 
The influence of Cluny was very important. From this 




Inilni 



Norman School. 

time greater attention was given to learning, and the 
schools increased in number and improved in quality. 

Education was intended wholly for the service of the 
Church, and most of the students became members of the 
secular or regular clergy. This determined to 
a very great extent the character of the teach- 
ing. During the early middle ages all ^:e 
studies were included in the " seven liberal arts " and fuO- 
ology. First came the trivium, or threefold way: gram- 
mar, rhetoric, and dialectics, or logic ; then the quadrivium : 
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. The trivium 
and quadrivium together made up the seven liberal arts. 



Trivium and 
quadrivium. 



102 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

These studies were not taken up in any regular order, and 
the names of the various subjects do not indicate their con- 
tents. Grammar, for example, included the study of the 
Latin classics, with an explanation of their historical and 
mythological allusions. Under the subjects of the quad- 
rivium were grouped all the fragments of knowledge con- 
cerning the natural sciences. Theology was the most im- 
portant branch, ar^ the study of the seven liberal arts was 
pursued partly as a preparation for the correct understand- 
ing of the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the church 
fathers. 

The teachers read the text-books to the pupils, who had 
none, and who were expected to commit everything to mem- 
ory. When a scholar failed he was flogged ; f or- 
Methods of tunately for his comfort, he was not expected to 

teacning. -^ tit -t i ■ n i t ± 

learn a great deal, in arithmetic the students 
were taught to keep simple accounts ; in music, what was 
necessary for the church services ; in geometry, a few prob- 
lems ; in astronomy, enough to calculate the date of Easter. 
It was not until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that 
these subjects were really stiulied seriously. Before that, 
when a boy had obtained a smattering of grammar and the 
quadrivium, he devoted himself, if he wished to study 
more, to theology or dialectics. Frequently he would 
travel from place to place to hear the most famous teachers. 
In the early part of the twelfth century the brilliant 
teaching of Abelard attracted to Paris students from all 

the European countries. He had broken away 
Prominence of fj.^^ ^^e traditions of the students of the 

tenth and eleventh centuries, who were apt to 
a^e^ept everything written as necessarily true, and insisted 
Uj,>on questioning the correctness of the information handed 
down by the earlier writers. This point of view was novel, 
and attracted auditors by hundreds. ,The pleasant life in 
the wealthy capital of France contrimited greatly in draw- 
ing students from other parts of that country, and from 



SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 163 

Germany, England, and the northern lands. From this 
time Paris became the chief center of learning for all Eu- 
rope. In the thirteenth century it was said that " France 
is the hearth where the intellectual bread of the whole 
world is baked." 

Teachers also were attracted to the place where stu- 
dents congregated, for a teacher's income was derived from 

Rise of the ^^® ^^^^ P^^*^ ^^ ^^® pupils who cliose to listen 
University of to him. The masters and students who were 
•^^"^' foreigners were obliged to band together for 

mutual protection and support, as they were not citizens, 
and consequently without the protection of the laws. In 
the frequent rows between students and citizens the former 
would naturally support one another. The king was very 
glad to have the scholars there on account of the added 
wealth which they brought to the capital, and because of 
the prestige which the great school conferred upon Paris. 
Consequently, when a serious fight occurred, in which five 
students were killed by the king's police and the students 
threatened to leave Paris in consequence, the king offered 
them special privileges if they would remain. It was in 
the year 1200, and this may be considered the date for the 
official recognition of the University of Paris, although 
there had been schools in existence for many years^nd the 
university was never founded in the modern senset^" 

The word university was originally a collective term, 
and was applied indifferently to a learned corporation, a 
gild of artisans, a band of soldiers, or any other body of 
men. The restriction of it to a particular institution was 
an accident. What we call a university was called in the 
thirteenth century a stiidii(m, or studium gen- 

Wtat auniver- g,Yf/e : the addition of qeiierale meant that stu- 
aty was I . , 

dents from different countries were m attend- 
ance. A studium (jeneraJe might or might Inot include 
schools of law, medicine, and theology; generally, there 
was at least one of these schools in addition to the fac- 



104 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

ulty of arts. Sometimes the teachers or masters controlled 
the sUidiwm, as at Paris ; sometimes the students were the 
governing body, as at Bologna, where they made regula- 
tions as to what studies should be taught, how fast the 
masters should lecture, and what the latter should wear. 

The scholars were chiefly a body of men from places 

outside of Paris, bound together by common interests, who 

would remain only as long as they found Paris 

Pnyilegesof attractive. Furthermore, they were either al- 

students. ■> j 

ready members of the clergy or intended to 
become members later.^ These facts determined the char- 
acter of the privileges granted to the students. The king, 
in 1200, guaranteed safe-conduct for them in traveling, and 
for the messengers who carried their letters and brought 
their supplies ; he exempted them from trial in the royal 
courts or imprisonment in the royal prison, and gave them 
the privilege of being tried only by the ecclesiastical courts. 
But the most important of all the privileges was the 
"right of migration." The university held no property; 

the lectures were delivered in hired buildings, 
Right of gQ w^Q^i \^ ^a^g ygj.y gagy fpi' tlic wliolc body 

of masters and students to decamp at a mo- 
ment's notice. This they did frequently and on the slight- 
est provocation. On the other hand, it was highly advan- 
tageous to a city to possess a studhon generale. It was 
not only a cause of prestige but also a very considerable 
source of income. The universities realized their advan- 
tage, and exercised their right of suspending lectures to 
enforce their privileges. The course of events was usu- 
ally the same. The students became involved in a riot, of 
which they were commonly the cause; the police were 
called out ; some students were wounded or killed ; the 
university decreed a cessation of lectures and threatened 

1 It is said that twenty of Abelard's pupils became cardinals, and 
more than fifty, bishops. 



SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 



165 




Seal of the University 
OF Pakis. 



a migration. If their demands for redress were not prompt- 
ly complied Avith they left the city. The final result in 
most cases was a full compliance with the students' de- 
mands, and frequently a payment 
of money or a grant of greater 
privileges to them. Probably, in 
a majority of cases, the scholars 
were the aggressors, but came out 
triumphant. Between 1188 and 
1338, inclusive, twelve cessations 
and migrations from Bologna are 
recorded, and these resulted in 
the foundation of eight " perma- 
nent Stuclia Generalia " in other 
places. In fact, a migration was 
the most usual cause of the foundation of a new university. 
Foreigners, who were natives of the same province, 
naturally associated together, and formed a club for social 
intercourse and self-protection, just as Americans studying 
in Europe do now. Gradually these associations became 
more formal, and spread until all the 
students were enrolled in the mem- 
bership of some province. Provinces 
were grouped together into nations. 
Each of these had its own officers, 
money-chest, and seal. Likewise the 
students and teachers of 
the same subjects natu- 
rally came together, and 
so WvQ faculties of arts, medicine, law, 
and theology grew up. Each univer- 
sity had this twofold organization of 

faculties and nations ; in some places, as has been said, 
the masters controlled these organizations ; in others, the 
students. The faculty of arts was usually the most numer- 
ous and the most important. 
12 



Organization 
of the nni- 
versities. 




Eeveese of the Seal 
OF THE University 
OF Paris. 



166 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



The curricu- 
lum, 



The University of Paris was modeled on the gilds. The 
masters, who had the right to teach, corresponded to the 
master-workmen ; the students corresponded to 
the apprentices. As the latter had to work for 
a term of years and to prove their fitness before 
they became members of the gild, so the students must 
study for six years and pass an examination before they 
became masters in art. In theology, they had to study 
eight to fourteen years before they became masters. The 
scholars were of all ages, from boys of twelve to old men. 
The studies were extremely varied, " as the students always 
desired to hear something new." The required course for 
the degree of master of arts was composed of only a few 
subjects, and did not take all of a student's time for six 
years. Many who attended the uni- 
versities never too^: f „ree at all. 
Consequently there w^r^^ always some 
desirous of taking subjects not included 
in the required course. Mathen '.ties 
and the natural sciences attracted i . ny 
students. The study of the classic^ .. as 
almost entirely abandoned at Paris in 
the thirteenth century. 

In the early monastic schools the 
pupils had not been required to pay 
for their tuition, and as long as the 
teaching remained in the hands of the 
monks this continued to be the cus- 
tom. But when masters began to earn 
their living by teaching, the students were required to pay. 
Some of the latter were so poor that they had to beg for 
their living. To provide for such, colleges were 
eges. founded at the different universities. At first 

these were merely endowed lodging-houses, under the su- 
pervision of a resident master. Gradually it became the 
custom for the master to give instruction to the other resi- 




Seal of a Doctor, 
University of Paris. 



SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES 167 

dents, until the colleges became the principal centers for 
teaching. Paris was the great home of the college system, 
and from there it spread under a somewhat changed form 
to the English and other universities y! much later the 
colleges in this country were patterned after the English 
models. 

In the thirteenth century Paris was the chief university 
north of the Alps, and was noted especially for its facul- 
ties of arts and theology. In Bologna, Italy, where a stu- 
dium generale had grown up somewhat earlier than at 
Paris, law was the most prominent branch, and the city 
was thronged with students from all the European coun- 
tries. The University of Oxford, although in existence 
earlier, became large and important only after 1229. Then, 
in consequence of a town and gown row, in which several 
of the students had been killed, the masters and scholars 
withdrew from Paris, and many of them went to Oxford, 
because the king of England had ofEered special induce- 
ments-^' In the same century other universities 
Other univer- ^g^g founded in Italy, France, Spain, and Eng- 

SlXlcSi 

land. The earliest ones in Germany date from 
the fourteenth century*^ The number of students at the 
leading universities in the thirteenth century^ was very 
large ; Paris and Bologna may have had 6,000 to 7,000 at 
the time of their greatest prosperity ; Oxford 1,500 to 
3,000. 

The majority were boys in their teens or young men, 
who enjoyed special privileges and were under no restraint. 

Drinking was a universal habit. Under these 
Life of the conditions it is no wonder that many led a 

students, "^ 

disorderly life, and that in an age when fight- 
ing was such a common amusement rows were very fre- 
quent. The rich nobles brought armed retainers with 
them, and sometimes fights arose between the members of 
different nations. The amusements, also, Avere of a very 
rough form, characteristic of the age. Yet in the univer- 



168 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

sities there was an intellectual life, a zest _f or knowledge 
which led to a rapid advance. Earnest scholars, like Eoger 
Bacon, were investigating new fields and laying the foun- 
dations for the wonderful age which was to follow. 

References 

Intellectual Life : Emerton, Medieval Europe, chap. xiii. Duniy, 
Middle Ages, pp. 222-230. Robinson, chap. xix. Schools: West, 
Alcuin, pp. 45-59. Life of Students: Rashdall, Universities (Cam- 
bridge, Eng., 1895), chap., xiv. Building up a University : Jessopp, 
Coming of the Friars, chap. vi. Privileges, Curriculum, etc. : Trans- 
lations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. 3. 



J 



CHAPTER XVI 

The Church in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries 

Summary. — In the thirteenth century the great authority of the 
Churcli was in the hands of the Pope, who was elected by the cardi- 
nals. He claimed authority over kings because he held that the Church 
was greater than the state. The Church had its own courts, which 
often came into confiiet with the secular courts. There were many 
heretics whom the clergy believed it necessary to crush. The Albigen- 
sian crusade devastated southern France and led to the Inquisition. 
The inquisitors were chosen from the Mendicant Orders, the Domini- 
cans and Franciscans, who were noted for their zeal and piety and 
consequently obtained enormous powers. 

At the beginning of the thirteenth century the Pope 
was far more powerful than any king. The authority of 
the Church was centralized in his hands. The 
The power of agents of this authority were picked men from 
all ranks of society ; for the members of the 
clergy were constantly seeking out the brightest boys — the 
sons of peasants as well as the sons of nobles — and educat- 
ing them for the Church. The clergy were unmarried, and 
had no family cares ; they were free from all necessity of 
making provision for their daily needs. Consequently, 
they were able to devote all their time and all their 
energies to the service of the Church, and as they worked 
with a unity of purpose their power was irresistible. The 
concentration of this power in the hands of the Pope had 
been a gradual development of the preceding centuries. 

The election of the popes themselves, until the middle 
of the eleventh century, had been to a great degree in 

169 



170 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

the hands of the emperors when the latter were powerful in 
Italy. As the Church gained in power its rulers felt that 
^ , , . it was absolutely necessary for their chief to 

Papal election. , , , t , , , , 

be elected only by the members oi the Church, 

and to be free from the emperor's control. By the elect- 
oral decree of 1059 the power of election was lodged almost 
wholly in the cardinals. 

These were certain bishops, priests, and deacons, who 

were connected with the churches of Rome or its suburbs. 

They were the most important members of the 

The cardinals. , • -d i xi i • i? -i j; 

clergy m Kome, and the chiei councilors of 
the Pope. When and how their title originated is a matter 
of uncertainty, but since the age of Hildebrand their im- 
portance has been very great. The number varied ; in the 
twelfth century there were usually 7 cardinal-bishops bear- 
ing the titles of the suburban churches ^ of Eome, 28 car- 
dinal-priests, who represented the most important churches 
in Eome, and 18 cardinal-deacons for the different sections 
of the city. 

The earlier popes had sent out legates occasionally to 
represent them, and to act in their place where they were 
not able to go in person. Gregory VII made a 
practise of sending legates to represent the 
papal power in every section of western Europe. These 
legates presided at councils, corrected abuses, and kept the 
Pope in close touch with every portion of the Church. 
Cardinals were frequently employed as legates. In this 
way the Pope and the cardinals obtained a more direct 
supervision over the whole Church, and were able to exer- 
cise political influence in every European court. It is not 
easy to exaggerate the practical importance of this in an 
age when communication was slow and uncertain. 

The popes confirmed the elections of archbishops and 

' Ostia, Porto, Santa Rufina or Silva Candida, Albano, Sabina, Tiis- 
culum, and Palestrina. 



THE CHURCH IN THE 12th AND 13th CENTURIES 171 



bishops. They determined upon the canonization of saints 
and the authenticity of relics ; in every case an inquest 
was held to determine whether the person proposed was 
worthy of the honor of being numbered among the saints, 
or whether the relic was re- 
ally what it was said to be. 
They had the right to grant 
dispensations, or licenses, by 
which a person was allowed 
to do something which was 
contrary to the strict letter 
of the law; for example, they 
could release a person from 
an oath which he had taken, 
or could allow him to marry 
one of his cousins. They 
could exempt monastic or- 
ders from the jurisdiction 
of the bishops in whose dio- 
ceses the orders were. They 
convoked gen- 
eral councils of 

the Church and confirmed their canons. In 
particular, any matter, which concerned the Church in any 
way, could be brought before the Pope by an appeal for his 
decision. Strictly speaking, his Jurisdiction was confined 
to spiritual matters under what is known as the canon law, 
but the temporal powers of the Church were so large that 
the distinction between spiritual and temporal things was 
difficult, and the Church claimed the right to define it. 
Thus, all questions arising from marriage and inheritance 
became subject to the spiritual courts of the bishops, and 
from these appeals could be carried to the Holy See. As 
the Pope also enjoyed original jurisdiction, it can readily 
be seen how immense was the business flowing into Eome, 
how large were the revenues thence accruing, and how 




Control over 
the Church. 



Thirteenth Century Chessman. 



172 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

directly the papal authority was brought to bear upon the 
people even to the most remote sections of Europe. 

The Pope thus was the ultimate arbiter not only in the 
field of morals and of faith, but also in many departments 
Power of the ^^ ^^^' ^^^^ jurisdiction extended from the 
Pope over lay cottage to the throne, for kings were Chris- 
pnnces, tians, and. as such were as fully responsible to 

the Church for their conduct as the humblest of their sub- 
jects. If a monarch committed a grievous sin and refused 
to make amends, the Church, acting through the Pope, 
felt it necessary to punish him. Several rulers were ex- 
communicated for murder or for gross immorality. If they 
remained obdurate the excommunication was extended to 
an interdict, or suspension of divine services throughout 
the land, in order that the subject people who suffered 
might bring pressure to bear upon their ruler and force 
him to make amends. Sometimes the Pope released the 
subjects from their oaths of allegiance, or declared a king 
deposed for resistance to his commands. 

Such actions did not meet with universal approval ; for 
many felt this to be an intrusion by the Church upon the 
rights of the state. The deposition of Henry IV by Greg- 
ory VII, and of Frederick II by Innocent IV, aroused bit- 
ter opposition, as their followers held that Henry and 
Frederick were kings by the grace of God and by the choice 
of the German peoi)lo ; although they might justly be pun- 
ished for their sins, the popes had no control over their 
power as kings. The popes and their follow- 
the^Church ®^"^' ^^ ^-he other hand, insisted that the depo- 
was greater sition was a uccessary measure of discipline, 
than the state. i3gp.^^^gg ^j^g j^^j^gg ^g-^,g unrepentant, and the 

Church was supreme. They proclaimed that the monarchs 
who ruled only over earthly dominions and the bodies of 
men were subordinate to the papacy, which had been given 
the keys of heaven and the control over the souls of men. 
They held that the Pope was as the sun, and the kings as 



THE CHURCH IN THE 12th AND 13th CENTURIES 173 



the moon, which shone only by the light reflected from the 
sun. Using the feudal idea, that a king held his kingdom 
as a fief from God, they proclaimed that the Pope, as the 
representative of God, 
could bestow or take 
away any kingdom. 
Some kings were 
willing, some were 
forced, to admit 
this theory. King 
John of England, 
Peter II of Aragon, 
Sancho I of Portu- 
gal, and other mon- 
archs, acknowledged 
themselves to be vas- 
sals of the Pope. At 
times during the thirteenth century it 
seemed as if the latter might become the 
suzerain of almost all the kings of Europe. 
In order to regulate the conduct of its 
members the Church was obliged to main- 
tain an ecclesiastical court in every dio- 
cese in addition to the feudal courts in 
which the bishops' delegates administered 
feudal law. In the ecclesiastical courts 
were tried all suits in which one or both 
of the parties were members of the clergy; 
as such they had the right to be tried 
only by these courts. This was granted 
as a privilege to all who had taken a vow to go on a cru- 
sade, and to students at the universities. Besides having 
jurisdiction over certain persons, the ecclesiastical courts 
tried certain classes of crime. All matters relative to the 
Christian faith, the church sacraments, or voavs which had 
been taken ; all crimes committed in holy places ; all vio- 




Ceozikr of the 
Thirteenth 
Century. 



174 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

lations of tlie Truce of God or of laws enacted by the Church 

— either were or might be brought into these courts. For 

this reason heresy, questions relating to mar- 

cc esiastica pi^ge and divorce — for marriage was a sacra- 
oourtSf ^ _ ® 

ment — all transactions which had been accom- 
panied by an oath, and many other classes of cases, were 
tried by the bishops' officials. In fact, there were compara- 
tively few cases which could not be brought within the 
competence of an ecclesiastical court by a liberal interpre- 
tation of its jurisdiction. For example, the Church had 
prohibited the payment of interest when money was bor- 
rowed ; consequently, any business transaction involving a 
loan might be brought before this court. 

Frequently a case might, with equal right, be tried either 
in the royal or baronial court or in the ecclesiastical court; 
fl- -.x^ foi' a matter of strictly secular business might 
the secular have been ratified by an oath. It was to the 
courts. interest of the king and the barons that all 

such cases should be tried in their civil courts, because the 
judicial fines and payments constituted a considerable part 
of their income. Frequently one or both of the litigants 
preferred to carry the case before the bishop's court, partly 
because the law was thought to be administered more in- 
telligently, and partly because the ecclesiastical penalties 
for many crimes were less severe. In the civil courts death 
and the mutilation of limbs were common punishments ; 
the ecclesiastical courts were forbidden to inflict any pen- 
alty which would cause the shedding of blood. Up to the 
middle of the twelfth century there had been little or no 
conflict between the two kinds of courts, which had often 
been of mutual aid. From that time, however, the lay pow- 
ers became jealous of what they considered encroachments 
on their rights. The great conflict ^ in England between 
Henry II and Thomas Becket was due mainly to this cause. 

' See Chap. XIX. 



THE CHURCH IN THE 12Tn AND 13tii CENTURIES 1T5 

The law administered in the ecclesiastical courts was the 
canon law or the law of the Church. Its chief sources 

were custom or unwritten law, the Holy Scrip- 
Canon law. ^^^^.gg^ ^j^g writings of the church fathers, the 
canons passed by church councils, and the decretals of the 
popes. About the middle of the twelfth century all the 
existing laws were codified by Gratian in the Decretum. 
The work was so well done and so convenient that, although 
it had at first no official sanction, it soon became recognized 
as the authoritative collection of the canon law. New laws 
were being made constantly by papal decretals to meet new 
cases. From time to time collections of these were made 
and added to the Decretum to form the corpus or body of 
canon law. 

The great increase in power was not obtained without 
opposition. The monastic ideals of the age led some to 

object to the wealth and authority of the 
Else of heresies. Qi^^^j-ch, and to urge that it ought to return 
to apostolic simplicity and poverty. The crusades had 
made men acquainted with other religions, and had aroused 
a thirst for knowledge which caused some to question even 
the teachings of the Church. The connection with the 
East had brought in many new ideas, some of which were 
directly opposed to the established doctrines. Conse- 
quently the twelfth and thirteenth centuries witnessed the 
rise of many heretics, who may be grouped under two 
heads : Antisacerdotalists and Manicheans. 

From time to time men came forward teaching that it 
was not necessary to obey the clergy. They held very 

divergent points of view, but they may be 
ofTereticr^ classed together as antisacerdotalists ; and in 

their development they became known to his- 
tory as the Poor Men of Lyons or Waldenses, finally merg- 
ing with the Protestants during the Reformation. The 
Manicheans, on the other hand, held the Oriental idea of 
two powers, one of evil and the other of good, who were in 



176 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

eternal warfare, and that the material universe had been 
created by the principle of evil. They were widely spread 
over southern Europe, and although divided into sects of 
slightly varying beliefs, they classed themselves under the 
common name of Cathari or the Pure. To the orthodox 
they were known by many designations, of which the most 
usual one was Patarins, while in southern France, where 
they were very numerous, they were called Albigenses. It 
is superfluous to say that they denied all authority to the 
Church. 

The time when these heresies were spreading most rap- 
idly was a period when Christian Europe as a whole felt 
the need of union against common foes. Jeru- 
Need of crnsli- gaiem had been captured by Saladin, and the 

mg heresyi ... 

Church was doing all m its power to arouse 
zeal for crusades to recover the holy city. In Spain the in- 
vasion of the Almohades threatened to crush the rising 
Christian kingdoms. In the northeast of Germany and 
elsewhere the Christians were struggling against the pa- 
gans. The heretics were very numerous, and had obtained 
control over some cities in Italy, while in southern France 
they had become powerful enough to obtain virtual tolera- 
tion from the feudal lords. They refused to pay the tithes 
to the clergy or to recognize their authority, and were a 
menace to the temporal power which the Church was rap- 
idly acquiring. A Cistercian wrote that if they were not 
crushed they would soon extend over all Europe. They 
were included with the Arians, Mohammedans, Jews, pa- 
gans, and German emperors as the chief persecutors of 
Christianity. The Church recognized that if they were 
not subdued the time was at hand when there would be a 
struggle on equal terms. Members of the clergy who Avere 
engaged in combating the heresies might bear witness to 
the excellent morals of the heretics, but duty to the faith 
required that the heresy should be exterminated. Ideas of 
entire relisrious toleration did not exist in the Christian 



THE CHURCH IN THE 12th AND 13th CENTURIES 177 

world until several centuries later, and then arose only in 
the new world, with Koger Williams in Rhode Island, among 
the Eoman Catholics in Maryland, and among the Quakers 
in Pennsylvania. 

In Languedoc ^ the heretics formed a large portion of 
the population, and were supported by many of the nobil- 
ity. Missionary labors in conversion and efforts 
. ^"is®°- to stimulate the rulers to persecution proved 

sian crusade, ^ ^ 

equally fruitless. In 1208 the papal legate was 
murdered by a squire of the count of Toulouse, who had 
been for several years under sentence of excommunication. 
This caused intense excitement, and led to immediate ac- 
tion. Innocent III renewed the excommunication, released 
the subjects from their oath of allegiance, and summoned 
all Christians to pursue the count and to seize his domin- 
ion. In July, 1209, an army of 50,000 men, led by the papal 
legate, marched against the heretics, who were put to death 
in great numbers, and towns were burned. Simon de Mont- 
fort was made the leader, and succeeded in conquering the 
greater part of Languedoc. He was killed in 1218, and his 
son was unable to hold his conquests. King Philip Augus- 
tus sent his son Louis to aid. This expedition was marked 
by great cruelty. In one town all the inhabitants — 5,000 
men, women, and children — were slaughtered in cold blood. 
The crusade had now become only a political war to extend 
the domination of the crown over the great feudatories of 
the south, for whose subjugation the existence of the here- 
tics served as an excuse. The son of Simon de Montfort 
resigned his rights to Louis VIII of France, who, in 1226, 
made a triumphal expedition and took possession of almost 
the whole of Languedoc without serious opposition. After 
his death the war dragged on until 1229, when Raymond, 

' Languedoc, the part of southern France which lay between the 
Garonne and the Rhone, where the people used oc for yes. In the north 
oU was used for yes. Hence the two parts were distinguished as Lan- 
gue d'oc and Langue d'oi'l, or the speech of oc and the speech of oil. 



178 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

count of Toulouse, submitted and abandoned most of his 
territory to the Crown. 

Although heresy had been crushed in Toulouse by vio- 
lence, it had not been extirpated. In Italy heretics were 
extremely numerous. The emperor, Freder- 

nquisi ion. ^^^ jj^ ^^ various edicts between 1220 and 

1239, ordered that any one of his subjects who had been 
convicted of heresy by the church officials should be burned 
and his property be confiscated. This gradually became the 
law in other countries. Gradually, also, the Church de- 
veloped an effective system for detection of heresy by the 
Inquisition. Suspected persons might be tortured in order 
to extract from them a confession of their guilt. Those 
who were convicted of heresy and remained obdurate were 
handed over to the secular powers, and were burned by the 
latter. Those who professed repentance and conversion 
were penanced by imprisonment for life, or by scourging 
or pilgrimages, or by wearing red crosses upon their gar- 
ments. The proceedings of the Inquisition were secret, 
and consequently caused great terror to all in any way in- 
volved in heresy. The property of heretics was confiscated 
by the kings, who were therefore interested in maintaining 
the Inquisition. It was felt to be necessary that the in- 
quisitors, who were given great power, and were responsi- 
ble only to the Pope, should be impartial, learned, and free 
from all suspicion of avarice or motives of revenge, and as 
the best means of attaining this they were usually selected 
from the mendicant orders, the -Dominicans and Francis- 
cans. 

St. Dominic, from whom the Dominicans take their 
name, was born in 1170, and after studying theology de- 
voted himself to the conversion of the heretics 
in Languedoc. He was earnest and zealous in 
his work and winning in his manner. In 1214 he gathered 
about him a few followers who gave themselves up to 
preaching and combating false doctrine. In 1215 they 




CHUECH OF ST. FEANCIS, ASSISI. 



THE CHURCH IN THE 12tu AND ISxn CENTURIES 179 

received papal sanction and adopted the rule of Augustinian 
Canons. Their purpose was to fit themselves by the study 
of theology for the task of preaching, and they were called 
" preaching friars." In 1217 the sixteen brethren who had 
joined St. Dominic were sent out to preach in S2)ain, 
France, and Italy. They were received with great enthu- 
siasm, and many hastened to join the order. By 1221, sixty 
convents had been established in Spain, France, Italy, Eng- 
land, Germany, and Hungary, and the members were win- 
ning universal respect by their learning and piety. , From 
this time the order was of the greatest assistance in preach- 
ing the faith and in combating heresy. 

Francis of Assisi was born in 1182, and in his twentieth 
year devoted his life to poverty and the service of others. 
He was humble, patient, merciful, and always 
cheeriul. Love for his fellow men, especially 
the poor and suffering, was his most marked characteristic. 
Gradually a few others joined him, for whom he framed a 
rule requiring absolute poverty, and ordering the brethren 
to work for their own living, to go about on foot, and to 
preach the faith. The order was sanctioned by the Pope 
in 1215, and increased so rapidly in membership that in 
1221 it already included thousands. The Franciscans, or 
Minorites, devoted themselves especially to the care of the 
sick and the tending of lepers. They won great love and 
respect, and by their preaching led thousands to repent- 
ance. In an age of brutality and violence they exemplified 
the Christian virtues of humility, patience, love, mercy, 
and devotion to others. They sought to proselyte Moham- 
medans and pagans, and braved every danger in their mis- 
sionary work. Francis himself went to Syria to the sultan 
of Babylon. His followers and the Dominicans vied with 
one another in their efforts to convert the infidels every- 
where. 

In fact, the members of these two orders wandered 
about on foot, enduring the most extreme privations, intent 



180 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

only upon serving their fellow men. This example was con- 
tagious, so that everywhere they went men and women 
wished to abandon all to enter the mendicant orders. In 
order to enroll these laymen in active service, St. Francis 
Power of the formed an organization known as " The Broth- 
mendicant ers and Sisters of Penitence," whose members 
°^ ^^^' were to continue their usual pursuits and to 
lead a holy life. It was called generally the Tertiary Order 
of Minorites, or Franciscans. Dominic founded a similar 
order under the name of " The Soldiery of Christ." All of 
the mendicants were active agents of the papacy, and were 
employed constantly on papal business in every country of 
Europe. Unfortunately, the unbounded reverence of the 
people conferred on the mendicants enormous wealth ; the 
precepts of the founders were, neglected by some of the 
brethren, and corruption crept in, as it had done in the 
older orders. Yet, in the thirteenth century, the men who 
were most noted both for their intellectual supremacy and 
zealous piety were, with few exceptions, members of the 
mendicant orders. 

References 

Churcli at the Beginning of the Thirteenth Century : Sabatier, St. 
Francis (New York, 1894), chap. ill. St. Dominic and St. Francis: 
Milman, Latin Christianity, vol. vi, pp. 1-45; Lea, Inquisition (New 
York, 1888), vol. i, pp. 243-268; Sabatier, chap. 5. Work of 
Friars : Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, chap. 1. Inquisition : Mil- 
man, vol. vi, pp. 311-317 ; Translations and Reprints, vol. iii, No. 6. 
Religious Opinions: Cutts, Parish Priests, chap, xxxii. 

Popes, 1124-1303 

Honorius II, 1124-1130. Alexander III, 1159-1181. 

Innocent II, 1130-1143. Lucius HI, 1181-1185. 

Celestine II, 1143-1144. Urban III, 1185-1187. 

Lucius II, 1144-1145. Gregory VIII, 1187. 

Eugene III, 1145-1153. Clement HI, 1187-1191. 

Anastasius IV. 1153-1154. Celestine III, 1191-1198. 

Hadrian IV, 1154-1159. Innocent III, 1198-1216. 



•Ml 



THE CHURCH IX THE 13th AND 1:Jtu CENTURIES 161 



Honorius III, 1216-1237. 
Gregory IX, 1227-1241. 
Celestine IV, 1241. 
Innocent IV, 1243-1254. 
Alexander IV, 1254-12G1. 
Urban IV, 12G1-1264. 
Clement IV, 1265-1268. 
Gregory X, 1371-1376. 
Innocent V, 1376. 



Hadrian V, 1376. 
John XXI, 1276-1277. 
Nicholas III, 1277-1380. 
Martin IV, 1381-1385. 
Honorius IV, 1385-1387. 
Nicholas IV, 1388-1292. 
Celestine V, 1394. 
Boniface VIII, 1394-130:J. 



13 



182 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Growth of the Nations 

Summary. — During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Ger- 
man Empire attained its period of greatest glory. But its strength 
was sapped by the unwillingness of the electoi's to choose a strong man, 
or to recognize the right of hereditary succession. The long struggle 
between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the Hohenstaufen policy of 
buying support by bartering away imperial rights, the opposition of 
the papacy, and the rebellions of the Lombard League, deprived the 
empire of all real authority. In the latter half of the 
thirteenth century Germany became divided into many 
states, and remained disunited until the last third of the 
nineteenth century. In northern Italy the cities, freed from all im- 
perial control, developed into rep .blics. The Swiss cantons succeeded 
in emancipating themselves from the duke of Swabia's authority and 
established the Swiss Confederation. Along the Baltic Sea the German 
cities formed the Hanseatic League and built up a great commercial 
and political supremacy, while the Teutonic Order was engaged in 
a crusade which resulted in the foundation of Prussia. 

Summary. — At the beginning of the thirteenth century the French 
kings had little power or territory ; two hundred years later they 
were absolute monarchs of France. They had succeeded in bringing 
the various fiefs under their direct control and in substituting mon- 
archical institutions for feudal usages. In doing so, they had been 
aided by the development of a recognition that the kingship was he- 
reditary, and by -assistance from the third estate. They 
established royal courts which superseded the baronial, 
and a national system of finance which freed them from 
dependence upon feudal contributions. They took advantage of the 
misfortunes of tiieir vassals to obtain Languedoc and almost all the 
Englisli possessions in France. The just rule of St. Louis and the 
political ability of Philip the Fair made France the leading counti-y 
in Europe. Under the latter king the States General was organized. 

Summary. — In England the authority of the king was greatly dimin- 
ished during this period. Almost all the possessions in France were 
lost, and the only permanent addition of territory in Great Britain 
was Wales. During the period of anarchy, when Stephen was king, the 
Church became very powerful. Henry II attempted to submit it to the 
royal authority, but was liindered by the murder of Thomas Becket. 
John became a papal vassal, and Henry III was very subservient, but 



THE CHURCH IN THE 13th AND 13th CENTURIES 183 

Edward I began the long series of royal enactments directed toward 
the restriction of the power of the Pope, whicli cuhninated in the estab- 
lishment of the English Clmrch. In political matters 
Chapter ^j^^ authority of the king, which was built up by Henry 

II, was diminished under John and Henry III. The 
barons and citizens, by joining together, compelled the monarch to con- 
sult their wishes. Under Edward I the Model Parliament was as- 
sembled, and it was agreed that the king could levy no general tax 
without authorization from Parliament. 

Summary. — In Spain the small Christian states were gradually 
consolidated into the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. The territory 
held by the Moors was slowly conquered, and in 1492 Granada, their 
last possession, fell into the hands of Ferdinand and Isabella. The 

Byzantine Empire became very weak, so that it was 
Ottaptpr 

easily conquered by the crusaders in 1204. But the em- 
pire which they established soon succumbed to the 
Greeks, and the latter, after an inglorious rule of two centuries, were 
conquered by the Ottoman Turks. Russia was weakened by internal 
discord, so that it made no united resistance to the Tartars who over- 
ran the counti-y in the thirteenth century. From that time it was for 
some centuries shut off from intercourse with Eurojie. The Scan- 
dinavian countries, too, failed to establish strong states. The Finns 
conquered Hungary, which became their home. In Bohemia the Slavs 
founded a successful kingdom, which soon came under German influ- 
ence, but in Poland they fell a prey to anarchy. 



CHAPTER XVII 
Germany and Italy 

After the disintegration of the Carolingian empire 
western Europe was divided into many fragments, ruled 
. by feudal lords. In each country there was a 

tenth and elev- king who was nominally the suzerain ; but his 
enth centuries, ^qq]^ power depended almost entirely upon his 
immediate feudal possessions, and these were seldom large 
enough to furnish him with a strong army or a sufficient 
income. The work of centralization, which he was not 
able to accomplish, was undertaken by the clergy. As edu- 
cation was wholly in their control, Latin, the language of 
the Church, became the language of all educated persons. 
All books and all legal documents were written in Latin. 
Furthermore, the civilization which resulted from the in- 
teraction of feudal usages and clerical influence was remark- 
ably uniform in the diiferent countries. Institutions like 
the Truce of God found favor among the different nations, 
and a general movement like the first crusade was possible. 

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the power of the 
feudal barons was undermined by the growing importance 
of the monarchs on the one hand, and by the 
twelfth and ^"^^® ^^ ^^® third estate on the other. The 
thirteentli influence of the Church was shaken by the 

cen uries, influx of uew ideas and by the political con- 

tests waged between the popes and kings. Education be- 
came more common, and literatures in the vernacular were 
developed. The modern nations began to take shape. In 
each one of the leading countries the same forces were at 
184 



GERMANY AND ITALY 185 

work and the elements were the same, but because of dif- 
ferences in the local conditions the results varied greatly ; 
and these results determined the future course of events, 
as will be apparent in the sequel of this work. 

In spite of the troubles of the Investiture Struggle, Ger- 
many seemed farthest advanced and the strongest of the 
„ , . nations. Moreover, under the able rulers of 

Results m ^ ^^ ^ » t r • j_j_ • i 

Germany and the Hohenstauf en House, the empn-e attained 
^^^h- its greatest glory and its widest influence, so 

that it seemed destined to include all Christian countries. 
But this glory was only transient, and Germany, weighed 
down by the burden of Italy — a veritable old man of the 
sea — wasted her strength and resources in chimerical proj- 
ects. After the extirpation of the Hohenstaufen family 
the two countries lost all semblance of unity. They were 
divided into many fragments, each one practically inde- 
pendent and constantly at war with its neighbors. Indi- 
vidual cities and lords became famous, and a remarkable 
civilization was developed in certain centers ; but Germany 
and Italy did not become nations until the last half of 
the nineteenth century. In order to explain the causes of 
the transient strength of the empire and of its ruin in the 
thirteenth century, it is necessary to study the actions of 
some of the rulers. 

When Henry V died, in 1125, leaving no son, the two 

most prominent candidates for the crown were Frederick of 

the Hohenstaufen familv, duke of Swabia, and 

Opposition to ' r> 1 

hereditary Lothalr, duke of Saxony. The first was the 
kingship. nephew of Henry, and had been designated by 

him as his successor. His election seemed assured, as his 
brother Conrad was duke of Franconia, and his father-in- 
law, a member of the Guelf family, was duke of Bavaria. 
It was therefore probable that he would have the support 
of three out of the four great races of Germany. But the 
lesser nobles had secured mucli power during the Investi- 
ture Struggle, when the kings had been obliged to buy their 



186 iMEDlEVAL HISTORY 

support by concessions, and now they desired to assert that 
the monarchy was elective and not hereditary. The lead- 
ing members of the clergy were opposed to Frederick, be- 
cause he had supported Henry V in the latter's struggle 
with the Pope. The duke of Bavaria was induced to 
abandon his son-in-law, and all the elements of opposition 
joined in the election of Lothair (1125-1137), who had been 
the chief opponent of Henry V. The marriage of Lothair's 
daughter with the duke of Bavaria's son increased the 
power of the Guelf family. 

Frederick the Hohenstaufen was the heir of his uncle, 
Henry V, and held all the latter's possessions. Lothair 

demanded the resignation of some fiefs which 
GWbellines. ^^^ claimed as royal property. From this time 

the Guelfs and Hohenstaufens were engaged 
in intermittent strife until the extinction of the latter 
family. The Hohenstaufens were known as Ghibellines^ 
— an Italian name formed from the German AVaiblingen, a 
Hohenstaufen possession. Conrad, the brother of Fred- 
erick the Hohenstaufen, was elected as anti-king in Italy, 
but had little real power, and after some years, yielding to 
the eloquence of Bernard of Clairvaux, was reconciled to 
Lothair. 

On the death of the latter, his son-in-law, the Guelf 
Henry, became duke of Saxony as well as of Bavaria, and 

expected to be elected king. The same jeal- 
Electionof ousy on the part of the lesser nobles which 

had caused the election of Lothair, now caused 
the rejection of Henry, whose excessive power was feared. 
The opponents of strong government favored the Hohen- 
staufen Conrad, who became king. 



' The names of Guelf and Ghibelline were soon adopted as designa- 
tions for the papal and imperial partiz.ans respectively. Transplanted 
into Italy, they were nsed later to designate party factions in the dif- 
ferent cities, without much regard to tlieir former meaning. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 



1S7 



His nephew, Frederick I, in whom the Ghibelline and 

Guelf stocks combined,^ had shown great ability as duke 

^ ^ . , of Swabia, and when Conrad died was the choice 

Frederick 

Barbarossa,= of all parties. His subjects admired his beauty 

1152-1190, and trusted in his virtues. With intense zeal 
he undertook " to reestablish the Roman Empire on its 
ancient basis." His hero was Charles the Great, whose 
canonization he secured 
from an anti-pope, and he 
intended to exercise all 
the rights ever possessed 
by Roman emperors. He 
believed fully in the max- 
im that "the will of the 
emperor has the force of 
law." The imperial pre- 
rogatives which had been 
lost through the weakness 
of the jDreceding kings he 
intended to exercise in 
every portion of the em- 
pire. Under him the 
" Roman Empire of the 
German Xation " regained 
its prestige, and became 
known as the " Holy Ro- 
man Empire." Most of 
his long reign, however, 

was spent in unsuccessful attempts to reduce his Italian 
subjects to obedience. 

For a century the German monarchs had been either 
too weak or too fully occupied elsewhere to govern Italy 
effectively. In the north the Lombard cities had become 




Statue of Frederick Barbaeossa. 



^ See genealosrieal table. 

* His Italian nickname, because of his red beard. 




40 80 120 
Belonging to the Empire 
Belonging to tlie Pope 
Belonging to the Normans 
- Belonging to the Venetians 
_J 1 



10 Londtude East 12 from G 



GERMANY AND ITALY 189 

almost independent. In the south the Xormans had built 
up a strong kingdom, which they held as vassals of the 
Pope, and not of the emperor. In Rome the 
itai*^°"°^ nobles had set up a commune under the di- 

rection of Arnold of Brescia, and the Pope was 
a fugitive from his capital. It was necessary for Frederick 
to assert his rights vigorously and Avithout delay, if he 
wished to retain Italy as a part of his emjDire. 

His first expedition to Italy, in 1154-'55, was undertaken 

to aid the Pope to secure Rome, and to obtain the imperial 

crown for himself. He was crowned King of 

Predenck and Italy at Pa via, and Emperor at Rome ; Arnold 

the popes, . . 

of Brescia was seized and burned at the stake ; 

but the emperor was forced to retreat hurriedly, as his army 
was suffering from diseases caused by the intense heat. 
Furthermore, Frederick and the Pope had disagreed, be- 
cause the former was not willing to take the same subordi- 
nate position with regard to the papacy that his immediate 
predecessors had done. A little later the Pope, Adrian IV, 
in writing to Frederick, referred to the heneficia which he 
had bestowed upon the latter. This term in feudal usage 
meant benefices or fiefs, and was so translated by the Ger- 
man chancellor. Frederick was indignant, as he inter- 
preted the phrase to mean that the Pope considered the 
empire a fief of the papacy. An open conflict was avoided, 
as the Pope explained that he had used the word merely in 
its general meaning of "benefits." But the incident in- 
creased the latent hostility between the two powers, and 
showed that Frederick was not willing to recognize the 
Pope as his superior. 

On his second Italian expedition, in 1158, Frederick 
held a great diet on the Roncalian Plain,^ at which repre- 
sentatives of all the Lombard cities were present. Over- 
awed by the emperor's power, the cities submitted to his 

' East of Piacenza, Italy. 



190 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

demands. He claimed all the imperial rights of govern- 
ment and taxation which had been usurped by the cities ; 
Irederick and prohibited private wars between the latter, and 
the Lombard appointed an official called '■'• 2Jodesta" in each 
"*^^^" city to represent the imperial authority and 

to administer Justice. Frederick's purpose was to destroy 
the independence of the cities and to subject them to his 
own power. Milan refused to receive his podesta, was con- 
quered by him after a two years' siege, and was destroyed 
(1162) by the inhabitants of the neighboring cities who, jeal- 
ous of its prosperity, had aided the emperor. Frederick 
hoped that the fate of Milan Avould crush all opposition. 

In the meantime Adrian had died and Alexander III 
became Pope. As the emperor's supporters knew that Al- 
exander would oppose their policy, they chose 
The Lombard ^^ g^^^^j _ pope. Alexander excommunicated 

LeaguBi . 

Frederick, made an alliance with the Lombard 
cities, and encouraged them to form a defensive league 
against the emperor. Thus far the cities had been weak 
because they had been disunited, and some had been glad to 
see the ruin of rivals, even when it entailed a loss of liberty 
on their own part. But the emperor's policy was so impar- 
tial, subjugating both friendly and hostile cities to his 
authority, that almost all were ready to unite against him. 
In 1167 he led an enormous army into Italy and captured 
Eome ; but this army was almost destroyed by the plague, 
and he had difficulty in getting back safely. This disaster 
encouraged his opponents, so that in 1168 almost all the 
cities joined in the Lombard League. 

For some years Frederick was occupied in Germany. 
Milan was rebuilt, and regained its power. In 1176 the 

emperor attempted to conquer it again, and 
The defeat of ^^^ defeated in the battle of Legnano. He 

realized that further efforts would be fruitless, 
and made peace with the Pope and the cities, recognizing the 
right of the latter to self-government in almost all matters, 



GERMANY AND ITALY 191 

although they still paid taxes to him and he retained a 
shadowy overlordship. From this time the Lombard cities 
were practically independent. 

The emperor's absorption in his Italian difficulties had 
enabled the Guelf party to build up a strong power in north- 
ern Germany under the leadership of Henry 
Frederick and ^j-^g j^^^^ Tj^^ 1^^^^^. consolidated all the Guelf 
possessions, and also followed the traditional 
policy of the Saxon dukes in extending his dominion over 
the lands to the north and east. The heathen inhabitants 
were converted ; towns founded, of which Liibeck was the 
most important ; and bishoprics were established. At first 
Frederick and Henry had been on good terms, but the latter 
refused to help Frederick in his campaigns against the 
Lombard League. After the emperor had made peace 
with the Lombards he determined to humble Henry, whose 
power in Germany was almost as great as his own. A pre- 
text was furnished by the complaints of Saxon bishops, who 
accused Henry of usurping their possessions. The latter, 
refusing to obey the imperial summons for a trial, was ban- 
ished and his duchies confiscated. By granting conces- 
sions to the lesser nobles in Henry's fief the emperor won 
sufficient support to conquer Saxony, and Henry was forced 
to submit (1181). He was banished for three years, and 
lost all his possessions except Brunswick and Liineburg. 
Bavaria was given to the Wittelsbach family, which has 
held it ever since, and his other lands were divided. Thus 
the danger of the separation of Germany into two king- 
doms, a northern and a southern, was averted. 

In spite of his defeat in Italy, Frederick had succeeded in 
reviving the glory of the empire, and had established order in 
Frederick's Germany. By his marriage with the heiress of 
power as upper Burgundy he became king of that coun- 

emperor. ^^^ jj^ forced the king of Bohemia to acknowl- 

edge him as overlord (1158). He negotiated the marriage 
of his heir, Henry, with the heiress of the king of Sicily 




Hknry the Liox. 

(From bis tomb iu the Cathedral 

of Brunswick.) 



Matilda, Wife of Henry 
THE Lion. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 103 

in order to unite southern Italy and Sicily to the empire. 
He drew vast resources from his own ducal dominions and 
from the Italian cities. By concessions in favor of the 
lesser German nobles, he obtained their support and was 
able to raise great armies. His power was so firmly estab- 
lished that he felt safe in leaving Germany for the crusade, 
during which he died (1190). 

His eldest son Henry succeeded him without opposition 
and added the kingdom of Sicily to his dominions in 1194. 
As the Lombard cities, freed from direct im- 
Henry VI, perial control, were again engaged in warfare 

1190-1197. ^.^^^ ^^^ another, the emperor used one party 
against the other and secured money from both. Eichard 
the Lion-hearted of England, who had fallen into captivity 
in Germany on his return from the crusade, was retained 
until he became the vassal of the emperor and paid an enor- 
mous ransom. Henry, dreaming of universal dominion, was 
preparing for a crusade to subjugate the East, when a sud- 
den illness caused his death. 

Henry's son Frederick had been crowned king, but was 
only three years old when his father died; consequently 
his claims were set aside. His uncle Philip^ 
Philip II and ^^s chosen by the Ghibelline party ; Otto IV, 
°"° ^^' son of Henry the Lion, by the Guelfs. For ten 

years Germany was devastated by a war between the rival 
claimants, in which the nobles became virtually independ- 
ent. Philip was murdered in 1108. Otto, who had been sup- 
ported by the Pope, was then recognized by all as sovereign. 
As emperor he soon became hostile to the Pope, who set up 
a riA^al king in the person of Frederick, son of Henry VI. 

The latter, as king of Sicily, had been under the guardian- 
ship of Pope Innocent III. His childhood had been spent 
in the midst of war, and his kingdom had been preserved 

> He styled himself Philip TT because Philip the Arabian, the third- 
centuiy Roman einpcror. had been Philip T. 



lOi 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



only by the zealous care of the Pope. Now Innocent, after 
compelling him to take an oath never to unite the king- 
doms of Sicily and Germany, secured his elec- 
I2r>-^1250^' ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ German nobles who were opposed 
to Otto. The hopes of the latter were crushed 
by the battle of Bouvines,^ where he and his uncle John of 
England were defeated by Philip Augustus and the parti- 
zans of Frederick. The deaths of both Otto and Innocent 
secured the kingdom for Frederick and left him free. 

In spite of his oath, he felt it necessary to keep both 

Sicily and Germany. If Innocent had lived, he would 

not have been able to do this without serious 

Fredenokand opposition. Innocent's successor, influenced 

by Frederick's vow to go on a crusade and his 

fair promises, made 
no objection to 
crowning him em- 
peror and allowing 
him to retain Sicily. 
Frederick's policy 
was to draw money 
from Sicily and sol- 
diers from Germany 
to maintain his im- 
perial position. He 
organized in his 
southern kingdom a 
strong centralized 
government in place 
of the former feudal 
administration. He 
encouraged commerce, granted toleration to Mohammedans 
and Jews, established the University of Naples, and pub- 
lished a new code of laws more modern in spirit than any pre- 




Skal of tiik Widow of Otto IV. 



' See page 211. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 15)5 

ceding code. T]w, country prospered under liis strict, rule, 
and literature and the arts llourislied under his patronage. 
In (jicrmany he followed the traditional llohenstaufen 
l)olicy of buying support by granting jjrivileges to tlie 
nobkvs, and tlius vvciakened the central governm(nit. In 
the last years of his reign ho gave charters to 
Frederick II ||^, jjioro important cities also, in ordcn- to 

aud Germany, , , . . . , . 

securer their assistance against the anti-kings 
who were elected by his opimnents. As a whole, he was little 
interested in (Germany, and made it entirely subordinate; to 
his Italian projects. Consequently he allowed his adherents 
almost entire ind(!i)enden(!e on their (Jerman fiefs as long as 
they furnished him aid when demanded. Wiiatever unity 
Clermany had secured under the Franconian emperors was 
lost under the TTohenstaufens, and the country became 
dividcMJ into many s(tparate units, sonu; ol" whi(;h were 
dinghies or (counties, some bishoprics, and some free cities. 

In order to arrange matters in his two kingdoms, Fnul- 
erick postponed his crusade repeatedly. Thii I'ope tried 

to m;i,k(i liim rullil liis vow and thrcatcuied ex- 
Frederick's communication; but he secured d(ihiys byre- 

assuring promises and by representing tiie need 
of his presence in the West. When the pacific Honorius was 
succeeded by Gregory IX, the emperor found it necessary 
to embark for Syria in order to avoid excommunic^ation. 
Within a few days ho turned back on account of illness, as 
he alleged. Gregory at once excommunicated him, and 
when he did set out again, renewed the ban because he had 
undertaken a crusade while excommunicated. The Pope 
also sent an army to invade Sicily. When Frederick re- 
turned, he drove out the papal troops and succeeded in 
making his peace with the Pope. 

His power was increasing rapidly, and was a menace to 
both the Pope and the Lombard cities, whose dominions 
wore surroundc^d by his fjerman and Italian possessions. 
The latter, fearing that he might attempt to destroy their 



196 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

independence, renewed the Lombard League and showed 
themselves openly hostile to him. Frederick attacked 
Frederick II them with an army composed of Swabian 
and the knights and Mohammedan horsemen from his 

Lombard cities. giciUan kingdom, inflicted a crushing defeat at 
Cortenuova, in 1237, and organized a strong government in 
northern Italy. 

All Italy, except the papal states, was now in his power, 
and it seemed evident that he would soon attack these. 
Ezoommunica- Gregory viewed the emperor's triumph with 
tion of alarm, and when Frederick refused to give up 

Frederick, Sardinia, which was claimed as a papal fief, 

placed him under excommunication and released his sub- 
jects from their oath of allegiance. Frederick retorted by 
conquering most of the papal territory. The death of 
Gregory, in 1241, caused a truce. During these years 
Frederick attempted to establish in his dominions a na- 
tional church of which he, and not the Pope, should be the 
head. His plan was somewhat similar to that followed 
later by Henry VIII of England. Innocent IV, elected 
Pope, renewed the excommunication, in 1245, and caused 
an anti-king to be elected in Germany. 

Frederick and his son Conrad were successful in Ger- 
many. The real danger was in Italy, where the Lombard 
cities again took the offensive and won a great 
Defeat of victory. Frederick met with other reverses, 

and even in the kingdom of Sicily his despot- 
ism caused conspiracies to be formed. In the midst of his 
struggles he was taken ill and died, 

Frederick was called " the wonder of the world." He 
had been carefully educated, and delighted in the society 
of learned men. He was versed in many Ian- 
Character of ffnaores, and was regarded by Dante as the fa- 
Fredericki r> o ' t-> j 

ther of Italian poetry. He was fond of natural 
history, and composed a treatise on falconry which shows his 
intimate knoAvledge of the subject. He was a free-thinker, 



GERMANY AND ITALY 197 

outwardly devoted to the Christian religion, but really a 
skeptic about all religions. In many respects he preferred 
Mohammedan customs, and in his later years spent his 
leisure in a Moslem colony which he had founded in south- 
ern Italy, where he maintained a harem. In many resj^ects 
he was far in advance of his age, as is proved by his laws, 
in which medieval customs were discarded and modern 
ideas introduced. Dante regarded the period of Frederick's 
greatest power as the golden age of Italy. 

His successors were unable to withstand their combined 

enemies, and their rule ceased in Germany with the death 

of Conrad IV, in 1254. Then succeeded a pe- 

FaUofthe riod of " Fist-law," when there was no central 

Honenstauiens. 

government and each portion of the country 

had to keep peace and defend itself as best it could. The 
Germans sighed for the days when the Hohenstaufens had 
ruled, and their longing found expression in the fable of 
the sleeping Barbarossa. The policy of the Hohenstaufen 
house had been fatal to German unity. In Italy, Fred- 
erick's descendants retained some powers until 1268, when 
the young Conradin fell into the hands of Charles of 
Anjou and was beheaded at Xaples. 

From this time the peninsula of Italy was almost 
Avholly free from any control by the emperors. In the 
^ ,. north the cities engaged in civil wars which 

Xtj3>ll9,Il StSitP^ 

resulted in the rise of city-states controlling 
the surrounding towns and villages. Of these the most 
important were Venice, Milan, Florence, and Genoa. The 
center of the peninsula formed the papal states governed 
by the Pope. In the south the French house of Anjou es- 
tablished the kingdom of Xaples, and Sicily was conquered 
by Aragon. Thus the whole of Italy was divided into sep- 
arate states, which were destined to remain disunited until 
the last third of the nineteenth century. 

The Hohenstaufen policy had been fatal to the cause 
of Germany unity. In order to secure men and supplies, 
14 



198 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

the emperors had granted away almost all of the imperial 

prerogatives. As they wislied to lessen the power of the 

great nobles, they had made many knights and 

Position of cities immediate vassals of the empire. Conse- 

Germany. . ^ 

quently, when the imperial authority was not 

exercised, all of the immediate vassals, princes, bishops, 
knights, cities, and even villages claimed to be independ- 
ent. Many of the weaker were forced to submit, but the 
total number of independent cities and knights was very 
large. 

Their independence was fostered by the double election 
after the death of Conrad TV. Two rivals were chosen by 
The interreg- opposing parties ; one was the English Richard 
num 11256- of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III ; the 
^2'^^'' other. King Alfonso X of Castile.^ Neither 

one exercised any real power ; Eichard spent but little 
time in Germany, and Alfonso never visited it. Each one, 
in order to gain support, granted privileges and lands to 
nobles, bishops, or cities whose aid he wished to gain. 
The last semblance of imperial authority was lost, and all 
imperial domains passed into private hands. This was the 
period of " Eist-law '' already referred to. Eichard died in 
1272. 

The electors- felt it necessary to choose a king, but did 
not desire a strong monarch who would take away any of 

' The election of a Spanish and an English emperor was due to the 
theory — never in accordance with the facts — that the empire embraced 
all Christian Europe, and consequently any prince was eligible to the 
throne. 

^ Originally the king was elected by all the freemen. Gradually 
this power passed into the hands of the chief nobles. In the thirteenth 
century seven of the most powerful princes claimed this right of 
choice. There was some dispute as to the seven who should constitute 
the electoral college, but in 1856. by the Golden Bull of Charles IV, 
the following were designated : the Archbishops of Mainz, Treves and 
Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the 
Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 199 

their own power. Their choice accordingly fell upon Eu- 
dolf, the " pauper count " of Hapsburg. His position was 
Election of ^ ^^^J difficult One, as he secured by election 
Rudolf of no domain lands and little real authority. 

Hapsburg. Moreover, Alfonso of Castile still claimed the 

title, and the king of Bohemia, wlio had not been con- 
sulted about the election, was openly hostile to Eudolf. 
In order to gain the support of the Pope, he confirmed all 
previous grants of Italian lands to the Holy See, and made 
no attempt to enforce his claim to the kingdom of Sicily. 
His policy was to add to his family possessions in Germany, 
As the king of Bohemia remained hostile, Eudolf attacked 
him and succeeded in conquering Austria, which had been 
annexed to Bohemia. This was his only great success, and 
resulted in the establishment of the Hapsburg family in 
Austria, where their rule has lasted until the present day. 
At his death the electors refused to choose his son, and 
selected another weak noble. Their unwillingness to elect 

a strong candidate prevented the monarchy in 

Later emperors, r-i » , • -, -,• , -iii 

^ bermany from becoming hereditary, as it had 

done in France. Each emperor tried to aggrandize his own 
family and to add to his domains. Outside of his immedi- 
ate possessions no ruler was strong, and Germany continued 
to be divided into many independent states, some of large 
size, others with a few hundred acres only under their 
control. 

Among the richest of the villages which claimed to be 

independent of all powers except the emperor, were the 

Swiss Uri, Schwiz and Unterwalden, on the Lake 

The Swiss qJ Lucerne. These had been originally in the 

Confederation. *^ -^ 

duchy of Swabia, and Eudolf of Hapsburg, be- 
fore he became emperor, attempted to subjugate them, 
together with the rest of the duchy, to his sway. For- 
tunately for the little Swiss cantons, of which these vil- 
lages were the centers, Eudolf's election turned his am- 
bition in other directions, and they remained free. The 



GERMANY AND ITALY 201 

next emperor, who was opposed to the Hapsburg claims, 
protected them for some years. In 1315, when the Haps- 
burg count finally sent a force against them, it was cut to 
pieces by the Swiss confederates in the battle of Morgarten. 
This success, and the growing desire for independence, led 
five other cantons ^ to join them, thus forming the Swiss 
Confederation.- The common danger of attack by a pow- 
erful foe caused the cantons to forget local jealousies and 
differences. The great attempt to subjugate them to the 
Hapsburg power was thwarted by the battle of Sempach, 
in 138G, and three years later the confederated cantons 
were acknowledged to be independent except for their alle- 
giance to the emperor. In their wars the Swiss had proved 
themselves the best infantry in Europe, and their services 
were sought as mercenaries by the other nations. 

In the north of Germany the cities were becoming very 
wealthy by trade. The weakness of the central government, 
and the privileges which they had secured, made 
The Hanseatic them independent. The towns along the Baltic 
^«^g^«' profited especially by the fisheries, as herring 

came thither each year in countless numbers. The perils 
of the sea and the dangers from robbers led these towns to 
unite for protection. When they formed such a union it 
was known as a hansa, or hanse.^ The most important 
hanse was formed by the union of Hamburg and Liibeck, 
which was entered into for the protection of the road be- 
tween the two cities. Gradually other towns joined in order 
to secure protection for their trade, until at about the be- 
ginning of the fourteenth century the association became 
known as the Hanseatic League. At first the purposes 
were wholly commercial, but their interests and the neces- 

1 Lucerne, 1320; Zurich, 1351 ; Glarus and Zug, 13.52; Bern, 1353. 

2 The legend of William Tell and the oath of RiiUili are wholly 
fabulous. 

* Hanse was a common term for associations formed for commercial 
purposes. 



202 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

sities of common defense led them to undertake combined 
military operations against Denmark. For a time during 
the early fifteenth century this league was the most im- 
portant power in the north. It was ruined by the depart- 
ure of the herring, which left the Baltic, and by the great 
geographical discoveries of the fifteenth century, which 
gave the commercial advantage to other nations.' 

The sphere of German influence was greatly extended 
in the northeast by the efforts of the Teutonic Order. This 
had been founded at the siege of Acre, during 
Prussia. ^Y^^ third crusade, and had been confirmed in 

1191 by the Pope. For a time its knights served in the 
Holy Land, but in 1231 transferred their activity to the 
lands along the Baltic which were still held by the heathen 
Slavs. In a half century they had conquered all of Prussia,^ 
and there they maintained their power until the middle of 
the fifteenth century.^ 

Much later the lands of the Teutonic Order, which had 
become the duchy of Prussia, were transferred to the lio- 
henzollern Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg. From 
that time the Baltic provinces of Prussia were held by the 
elector of Brandenburg, until in the eighteenth century 
his title was changed to king " in Prussia." 

References 

Tout: Empire and Papacy^ chaps, xi, xvi. Lodge: Close of the 
Middle Ages, chaps, i, vii, xviii. Henderson: History of Germany 
(London, 1894), cliaps. xxvii, xxviii. Bryce: Holy Roman Enifire, 
chaps, xi, xiii. Adams: CivilizaMon During the Middle Ages, pp. 
247-257, 356-361. Emerton: Medieval Europe, chaps, ix, x. 

' Some cities, like Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck retainetl, until 
the nineteenth century, the name of hanse towns, but only as a symbol 
of freedom, not of association. 

' Not the modern Prussia. See INIap. 

3 Their later history is to be found in the history of the rise of Bran- 
denburg and the growth of Poland. 



GERMANY AND ITALY 



203 



GUELFS 



HOHENSTAUFENS 



Welf IV, 

tllOl. 

I 

Henry the Black, 

tlWe, D. of Bavaria. 



Frederick of Swabia, 
tll05 = Agnes, d. HENRY IV. 



Henry the Proud, 
tll39 - d. LOTHAIR. 



Welf VI, 
tll91. 



I I 

Judith = Frederick, 

I tn47. 



CONRAD III, 

tn52. 



Henry the Lion, 1119.5 
— d. Henry II of England. 

I 



OTTO IV, 

tiai8 = d. of 
PHILIP. 



I 

William. 

I 

Otto. 



FREDERICK I, 

+1190. 



Henry, 
+1150. 



Frederick, 
+116r. 



I 
HENRY VI, 

+1197. 
I 
FREDERICK H, 
+1250. 



Frederick, 
+1191. 



PHILIP n, 

+ 1208. 



Beatrix = 
OTTO IV. 



I I I 

Henry, CONRAD IV, Margaret, 

+1242. +1254. +1270. 

I 

Conradin, 

+1268. 



Beatrix = 

Ferdinand III 

of Castile. 



Enzio, 

+1272. 



Manfred, 
+1266. 



Alfonso X 
of Castile. 



Constantia = 
Pedro HI of Aragon. 



Note. — =, married ; D., duke ; d., daughter. Names of emperors in capitals. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
France (1108-1314) 

In Germany feudalism triumphed over the monarchy ; 
the centralized government was weakened by repeated con- 
cessions to the nobles, until the king became 
between merely the nominal suzerain, while all the real 

Germany and power was in the hands of the vassals. In 
France, the king in the eleventh century was 
a baron with no effective power outside of his own fiefs. 
In three centuries the kingship had shaken off its feudal 
bonds and had become a centralized government. The 
first four Capetian monarchs did little more than retain 
the title of king for their family; their possessions were 
less extensive than some of the fiefs held by their vassals. 
From this humble origin the kingdom grew, until, at the 
beginning of the fourteenth century, it included almost all 
of modern France. 

The Capetian rulers of the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies were occupied with two great tasks : first, that of 
Two tasks of bringing all the fiefs in France under their 
the Frencli direct rule ; secondly, that of superseding the 
"^^^^ feudal usages by monarchical institutions. 

Their success was due to the fact that they moved slowly, 
attempting no rash innovations, and did not take any 
action which was not a natural outgrowth of existing 
customs. They took away gradually many rights from 
their vassals, but they did it by following feudal usages, 
and by claiming these rights as overlords. A part of their 
success was due to the ability of the individual rulers, 
304 



FRANCE (1108-1314) 



205 



especially Philip Augustus and Louis IX ; in fact, Louis 

VII is the only one of the twelfth or thirteenth century 

kings who can be called weak, and his weakness would be 

less apparent if he had not succeeded Louis VI and been 

followed by Philip Augustus. 

Many circumstances, of which they took full advantage, 

aided in establishing their power. Most prominent of all 

was the fact that the kingship gradually be- 
Favonng cir- . '^ '^^ •' 

cumstances ; Came recognized as hereditary. In the earlier 
hereditary centuries it had been, like the German, elect- 

ive. More fortunate than the German kings, 
each Capetian, for three centuries, 
had a son to succeed him. Each 
of the earlier monarchs had his 
son elected associate - king during 
his own life. In the time of Philip 
Augustus the hereditary succession 
was so fully recognized that he 
did not feel it necessary to continue 
the custom. AVhen Louis VIII died, 
in 1226, his son, although only a 
child, was recognized without hesi- 
tation. 

The king was aided by the rise of communes and the 
growth in importance of the non-noble classes, because the 
latter desired peace and order above all else. Not 
fwrf eLte! merely their prosperity, but their very safety, de- 
pended upon the suppression of private warfare 
and feudal exactions. The king could count upon assist- 
ance and money from them, if needed to check disorder. 
Moreover, the study of law at the universities was educat- 
ing a large number of laymen from the middle class, who 
entered the royal service and superseded the nobles as the 
king's agents. 

The French monarchs profited also by the misfortunes 
of their vassals. Throughout the country all the petty fiefs 




Seal of thk City of 
Paris. 



206 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

were being absorbed into a few great fiefs ; two of the most 

important of these were Normandy and Toulouse. As the 

duke of Xormandy was the king of England, 

Troubles of the ^j^^ ^-^-i ^,^^^ -^ ^j^g ^^^^.^^ country enabled the 

vassals, '' 

French king to annex ]S'ormandy to the royal 

possessions. The Albigensian crusade ^ so weakened the 
count of Toulouse that he was forced to resign most of his 
lands to the king, who gradually secured almost all of Lan- 
guedoc. These favoring circumstances were utilized skil- 
fully by the Capetians. 

This work was done so methodically, and the results 
were so striking, that modern writers are apt to attribute 
. , to the rulers a conscious plan and prophetic 

creation of Spirit. This is a mistake. The individual 
France. kings were frequently led by their personal 

feelings into actions which hindered progress. They never 
planned to discard the feudal usages with which they were 
familiar, in order to try experiments in statecraft. Yet, 
from the vantage-ground of the twentieth century, it is 
easy to trace out the steps by which the suzerains of the 
territory immediately about Paris became the monarch s of 
France. They established their rule firmly in the duchy 
of France. They drew into their employ men of humble 
birth, whose fortunes were wholly dependent upon the 
king, and thus were enabled to dispense with the services 
of their barons. They acquired one fief after another, 
until their domain included the whole kingdom. They 
developed a royal army, so that they were not wholly 
dependent upon the military forces of their vassals. They 
established royal courts of justice, which gradually ab- 
sorbed the business of the baronial courts. They organized 
a national system of finance, which made them independent 
of feudal contributions. Some of these processes were 
going on simultaneously. 

1 See page 177. 



FRANCE (1108-1314) 207 

Louis VI reduced to obedience the rebellious vassals in 
the duchy of France. He had been elected associate king in 

1100, and because of the weakness of his father 
1108-1137 ^^ ^^^^ assumed the task of repressing disorder, 

and conducted many campaigns against his vas- 
sals. No one of these is important in itself, but the defeat 
of one vassal after another finally made the king supreme 
in his own domain. lie burned many of the castles which 



Charter of St. Louis, with Seals. 

were held by robber-barons, who had made it impossible for 
the king to travel in his own fief unless he was accom- 
panied by an armed band. He protected the clergy and 
the poor against the exactions of the nobles. His chief 
minister was Suger, a monk of humble birth. 

During the reign of Louis VII little progress was made. 
In his early years he continued the policy of his father in 

the duchy. He also attempted to establish his 
1137-1180. authority in Aquitaine, which he had acquired 

by marrying the heiress, Eleanor. This marriage, 
arranged by Louis VI, had more than doubled the possessions 
of the king. His real troubles began when he went on the sec- 
ond crusade. During his absence the barons became powerful. 



208 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

and when he returned he had to take up again the task of 
establishmg order in his duchy. He lost Aquitaine when 
he obtained a divorce from Eleanor. She had long despised 
her husband on account of his piety, which was in strong 
contrast with her own character. She hastened to marry 
his enemy, Henry of Anjou, who already held Xormandy, 
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine. By this marriage Henry 
became more powerful than Louis ; his possessions in 
France were about six times as large as those under the 
immediate power of the French king, and in addition he 
soon became king of England. Almost all the remainder 
of Louis's reign was spent in wars against Henry. Probably 
the latter's struggle with Thomas Becket ^ saved Louis from 
defeat. 

Philip II was only fifteen years of age when he became 

king. His strength of character and ability, however, were 

so marked that he soon took the reins of govern- 

1180^1223^ ^^' ^^^^^ i^^o ^^^^ ^'^^^ hands. He was the very man 
needed to release the French monarchy from, its 
dangerous position. He was shrewd and diplomatic ; he 
took advantage of every opportunity offered by his oppo- 
nents and used every other means to increase his own 
power ; he could conceal his feelings so successfully that 
no one could tell what he really intended to do. 

The great task of his reign was to weaken the power in 
France of the English kings. While Henry II livec" , Philip 
incited the English princes to rebel against 
English kings, their father. He aided each one in turn. After 
Henry's death, in 1189, had made Eichard the 
Lion-hearted king of England, Philip professed the greatest 
friendship for the latter. Their intimacy, however, soon 
led to quarrels, and on the third crusade they became bit- 
ter enemies. When Eichard was in captivity, Philip en- 
couraged John of England to rebel and joined with him in 

1 See page 217, 




CATHEDEAL. AMIEXS. 



210 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

attempting to bribe Henry VI of Germany to keep Eichard 
in prison. After the release of the latter there was open 
war, until Eichard's death freed Philip from the danger of 
being conquered. John's misdeeds gave him his oppor- 
tunity, for John married the heiress of Angouleme, who 
had been betrothed to one of his own vassals, and, more- 
over, he was suspected of having murdered his nephew 
Arthur. As feudal overlord Philip summoned John to be 
tried for his crimes. The latter refused to obey the sum- 
mons, and in accordance with feudal law forfeited the fiefs 
which he held from the French king. 

Philip took possession of Normandy (1203-'04) and most 
of John's other possessions in France. He met with seri- 
ous opposition at only two or three castles, as 

Additions to e ±1 1 j! t i i i ^ 

territory. many ot the vassals 01 John were glad to 

change their suzerain. Philip took no part 
personally in the Albigensian crusade, but watched it care- 
fully and managed matters so that eventually Languedoc 
became the property of his descendants. Other fiefs were 
added by his shrewdness and diplomacy. 

While Eichard the Lion-hearted was in captivity Philip 
planned an invasion of England, and in order to get the 
assistance of the Danish fleet he married a Da- 
ingeboTK ^^^si^ princess, Ingeborg. She was only eighteen, 

virtuous and pretty. The very day after the 
marriage Philip showed a great aversion to her, and has- 
tened to get a divorce, alleging falsely that she was related 
to him.^ Ingeborg and her relatives appealed to the Pope, 
who pronounced the divorce illegal, and commanded Philip 
to receive her as his wife. Philip refused, kept Ingeborg a 
prisoner, and married Agnes of Meran. When Innocent 
III became Pope he laid an interdict upon France (1200) 
until Philip should send away Agnes and take back Inge- 



' By the canon law relatives within certain degrees were forbidden 
to marry. 



FRANCE (1108-1314) 211 

borg. After some months Philip pretended to yield, but 
when the interdict was raised he still refused to live with 
Ingeborg. Agnes died in 1201, but the unhappy Ingeborg 
was a prisoner for twenty years in all; she complained 
that she was not given sufficient food or clothing.^ Finally, 
in 1213, as Philip again needed the help of Denmark, 
he took back Ingeborg and treated her as the queen of 
France. By his unexpected submission he secured the aid 
of Innocent III. 

He needed this, for his position was desperate. John of 
England had succeeded in forming a coalition with the rul- 
ers of Germany, Holland, and Flanders, and by their assist- 
ance hoped to regain his lost provinces. The allies planned 
a double attack upon France : the German and Flemish 
forces were to invade it from the north, while the English 
attempted to reconquer Poitou and march upon Paris. John 
landed at La Rochelle, February 16, 1214, and was welcomed 
by some of his former vassals. While Philip went to meet 
the enemy in the north, his son Louis prevented John 
from conquering Poitou. The allies and the 
Battle of Bon- French engaged battle at Bou vines, where the 
"^^^' ' latter, although greatly inferior in number, 
won a decisive victory, which had important results in 
three countries. It freed the king of France from his 
dangers ; in Germany it decided the contest between Otto 
IV and Frederick II ; ^ in England it gave such a blow to 
the power of John that he was soon obliged to sign the 
Great Charter.^ 

Philip's work had been done thoroughly, so 

1226-1270, ^^^^ o^"^ ^^6 ^^^^^^ o^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ (1223-1226), 

the latter's son, Louis IX, who was only eleven, 

succeeded to the throne without opposition. During the 

long minority, the nobles, aided by Henry III of England, 

1 The reason for the king's dislike and cruelty has never been as- 
certained. 

* See page 194. ^ See page 221. 



212 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



rebelled repeatedly, but the rebellions were easily crushed. 

Then followed a long period of peace in which Louis gov- 
erned France firmly and made it the most 
important country in Europe. His success 
was due chiefly to his admirable character ; 
he was pious, just, and generous ; he was 
so honorable that his arbitration was sought 
by foreigners ; and he never took unfair 
advantage of a defeated foe. He delighted 
in works of charity and piety, fed the poor 
and nursed lepers with his own hands, and 
could never endure to hear profane or 
vulgar language. His 
nobles were amazed at 
his devotion, but they 
respected his vigor and 
loved his virtues. His 
subjects willingly obeyed 
him because they knew 
that he was just. Soon 
after his death he was 

made a saint — a fitting recognition of his 

preeminent virtues. 

His grandson, Philip the Fair, is fa- 
mous for his skill in organizing the ad- 
ministration. The founda- 

rSisi?''' *ions had been laid by Philip 
Augustus and Louis IX, but 

Philip IV completed the structure. The 

results of his work are the basis of the 

present administrative system in France. 

The government was centralized, and the 

power was taken from the feudal nobles in many ways. 

Lawsuits could be appealed from the feudal courts to the 

king's court, and many cases could be tried only by the latter 

tribunal. Philip's most famous innovation was the States- 




St. Louis. 




Marguerite of 
Provence. 



PRANCE (1108-1314) 213 

General^ in which all classes except the peasants were rep- 
resented. At its first meeting in 1302, nobles, clergy, and 
citizens were summoned to assist the king; thus the im- 
portance of the third estate was recognized, and its aid was 
sought by the king. 

References 
Adams: Civilization During the Middle Ages, pp. 311-331. 
Adams : Groicth of the French Nation, pp. 73-103. Hassall : French 
People, chap. vii. Emerton: Medieval Europe, chap. xii. Tout: 
Empire and Papacy, cliaps. xii, xvii. Lodge : Close of the Middle 
Ages, pp. 43-62. *" 



15 



CHAPTER XIX 
England (1135-1327) 

Heney I had secured from the barons an oath to recog- 
nize his daughter Matilda as his successor, but after his 
death her cousin Stephen obtained the crown, 

S'lTb ^^ ^^^^- ^*^^ Scotch king and many English 
nobles asserted the superior rights of Matilda, 
and a civil war ensued which lasted for seventeen years. 
During this time the king lost all control of the country, 
and the power passed into the hands of the feudal nobles. 
The latter engaged in many private wars and wasted the 
kingdom so that famines followed in some counties ; they 
also seized the property of private citizens and used torture 
to extort money from their victims. " They hanged up 
men by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke. . . . 
They put knotted strings about men's heads and tAvisted 
the strings till they entered the brain. . . . Many thousands 
they starved." This period of anarchy was ended by the 
peace of Wallingford, in 1153, when Stephen was recog- 
nized as king by the party of Matilda, with the condition 
that her son Henry should receive the crown after Stephen's 
death. 

The following year Henry IT succeeded to the throne. 
In addition to England he ruled over Xormandy, Anjou, 

„ , Maine, and Touraine, which he had inherited. 

French . . ' 

dominions of By his marriage with Eleanor, formerly the wife 
Henry II. q^ Louis VII of France, he secured Aquitaine. 

Thus his French possessions were more extensive than his 
English kingdom, and for a time there was a possibility 
214 



ENGLAND (1135-1327) 215 

that England would be merely a subject country ruled by a 
French monarch. The danger to the French king has been 
discussed. Fortunately for the development of England, 
almost all of these foreign possessions were lost during the 
reign of John.^ 

In the British islands, on the other hand, the posses- 
sions of the Angevin - kings became much more extensive. 
One of the popes, Adrian IV, is said to have 
made a grant of Ireland to Henry. Whether 
this is true or not, the latter made an expedition to that 
island in 1171, and during a brief stay received the submis- 
sion of the Irish kings. Probably the real reason for his 
expedition was the growing power of Norman lords, who, 
dissatisfied with his rule, had left England and were 
attempting to establish independent principalities in Ire- 
land. This so-called conquest gave the English kings a 
claim to Ireland, but the later kings paid little attention 
to that country, and the real conquest and incorporation 
did not take place until the reign of Elizabeth, 1558-1003. 

Henry II also became overlord of Wales by the submis- 
sion of the Welsh rulers. The overlordship was claimed by 
the succeeding kings, and was generally recog- 
nized until the time of Edward I. But the 
Welsh were constantly plundering the English border-lands 
and joined in every movement against the king. Llewellyn, 
Prince of Wales, refused for some years to do homage to 
Edward, and even after acknowledging that he was the 
king's vassal, made war upon the latter. A long conflict 
followed, in which the Welsh, aided by the mountainous 
character of their country, made a stubborn resistance, but 
were subjugated in 1283. In the following year Edward II 
was born in their land and received the title of Prince of 
Wales — which is still borne by the oldest son of the king of 
England. 

' See page 210. ''Froin Anjou. the home of Henry's father. 



216 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

The Angevin kings also claimed the overlordship of 
Scotland, as William the Conqueror and William Eufus had 
both received the homage of the Scottish kings, 
and in 1137 King David of Scotland had aided 
Matilda as her vassal. The Scottish monarchs did homage 
to Henry II, but Kichard the Lion-hearted sold his rights 
as overlord when he needed money for his crusade. On the 
death of Margaret, the heiress to the Scotch throne, in 
1290, several relatives laid claim to the succession, and Ed- 
ward I was asked to decide which was the lawful heir. 
He asserted the right of overlordship, which Eichard had 
abandoned, and his authority was recognized by most of 
the claimants and by many of the nobles. John Balliol 
was made king by Edward, but soon became irritated, be- 
cause he found that he was treated merely as a vassal of 
the English monarch, who kept the effective power in his 
own hands. Consequently Balliol revolted in 1295 and made 
an alliance with the French king. AVar followed in 1296 ; 
Balliol was captured, the country was conquered, and an 
English governor appointed. In fact, Scotland seemed to 
be incorporated into Edward's possessions. But in 1297 the 
Scotch revolted again under William Wallace ; after a vic- 
tory at Stirling, a defeat at Falkirk, and various other bat- 
tles, he was captured, and executed in 1305. The next year 
Eobert Bruce headed another revolt. The death of Ed- 
ward I in 1307, and the weakness of Edward II, enabled 
Bruce to gain the mastery of almost all Scotland ; and his 
victory at Bannockburn, in 1314, practically secured the 
independence of Scotland, which was recognized by the 
English in the Treaty of Xorthampton, 1323. The English 
kings made some attempts later to regain Scotland, but 
these were of little consequence. 

William the Conqueror had favored the clergy and had 
added to the power of the Church in England, but he was 
in no way subservient to the papacy. He refused to do 
homage to Gregory VII; he forbade appeals to Eome ; he 



ENGLAND (1135-1327) 21 Y 

allowed no papal legate to land in the kingdom without 
his permission ; and ecclesiastical laws had to receive his 
Troubles with sanction before they became operative in Eng- 
theCiiurcii) land. Henry I wished to keep the same au- 
wlmaliand thority and refused to give up the right of 
Henry I. investing church officials ; but a compromise 

was reached in 1107, similar to that arranged by the Con- 
cordat of Worms.^ In the period of civil war, however, 
the Church obtained great power, as there was no effective 
opposition from Stephen or Matilda. 

When Henry II became king he desii'ed to regain the 
authority over the Church which William had wielded. 
Accordingly he appointed as archbishop of 
Th^^^ ^E^'k Canterbury his chancellor and most intimate 
friend, Thomas Becket, but the latter at once 
became the champion of the Church and attempted to assert 
his freedom from royal control. Open conflict was avoided, 
however, until the king promulgated the Constitutions of 
Clarendon, in 1164. By these laws appeals to 
0kren2i°''' "^ ^^™® without the king's permission were for- 
bidden ; the king's consent was declared to be 
necessary for the election of bishops and abbots ; clerics were 
in certain cases to be punished by the royal courts ; estates 
held by the Church were to pay the same dues as lay fiefs ; 
and a villein was not to receive ordination without his lord's 
consent. Becket resisted the enforcement of these laws and 
was forced to go into exile. In 1170 he returned and again 
provoked the anger of the king. Some followers of Henry, 
acting upon rash words which he uttered, murdered Thomas 
in Canterbury Cathedral. The general indignation of the 
people compelled Henry, who regretted that his anger had 
led to the murder, to rescind the constitutions and to do 
penance for the murder. Later, however, he succeeded in 
obtaining many of the powers which he desired. 

' See page 61, 



218 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

When the archbishopric of Canterbury became vacant 
in 1305, during John's reign, a double election took jilace, 

and both parties appealed to the Pope, Inno- 
Johnand ^gj^^ m rpj^^ j^^^^^. g^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ candidates. 

Innocent III. . 

one of whom was nominated by John, and had 

Stephen Langton elected. As John refused to accept Ste- 
phen, Innocent placed England under an interdict in 1208, 
and the following year excommunicated the king. The 
latter remained obdurate, and was threatened with depo- 
sition by the Pope in 1213. The people of England were 
so incensed by John's tyranny that he was compelled to 
yield to the Pope in order to keep his kingdom, and to sub- 
mit to the most humiliating conditions, acknowledging 
himself to be a papal vassal, receiving Langton, and promis- 
ing to pay a large sum each year as a recognition of the 
Pope's overlordship. 

During the period of misrule in the reign of Henry III, 
the popes treated England as a papal territory, exacting 

-, ,, , contributions and appointing hundreds of for- 
Exactions under . i r o 

Henry III, eigners to church offices. In 1252 Eobert 
1216 1272, Grosseteste, the bishop of Lincoln, stated that 
the officials nominated by the Pope were enjoying revenues 
in England which were three times as great as the king's 
income. 

Edward I endeavored to restrict the power of the clergy. 
In 1279 he made a law forbidding gifts of estates to the 
Church, because the lands which it held were 
Edward I, fi'ee from the payment of feudal dues. He 

1272 1307. refused to submit to the authority claimed by 
Boniface VIII, in 1296. Ten years later he forbade mem- 
bers of the Church to pay contributions which were to be 
used outside the realm. Without openly breaking with 
the Pope he did all in his power to lessen the papal influ- 
ence and authority over the Church in England. 

When Henry II became king in 1154, he set about the 
reestablishment of the royal authority, which had been 



ENGLAND (1135-1327) 219 

weakened in the long civil war. The Constitutions of 
Clarendon, by which he endeavored to restrict the powers 
of the Church, have been discussed. His other laws, which 
Political were called assizes, were intended to lessen the 

changes j laws authority of the feudal lords, and may be 
enrjr . divided into two general classes. Those of the 
first class built up a national army, in contrast with the 
feudal levies on which the king had been obliged to depend. 
Henry secured money to hire mercenaries by levying fre- 
quently a tax called scutage,^ instead of calling upon the 
barons to perform their military service. This resulted in 
a serious loss of power by the feudal nobles. In 1176 he 
required that all earls, barons, knights, freeholders, and 
also villeins, who wished to remain in the realm, should 
take an oath of fealty to him. Thus he reenforced the 
law of William the Conqueror, which made all subjects 
responsible directly to the king, and not to any intermedi- 
ate lord. In 1181, by the Assize of Arms, every freeholder 
was required to supply himself with suitable arms, and to 
serve when summoned ; thus a national army could be 
raised directly by the king. The laws of the second class 
established a system of royal courts, which left comparatively 
little power to baronial courts. Judges were sent through- 
out the country to try cases ; in 1176 their Jurisdiction was 
extended, and they were given fixed circuits. In 1178 five 
judges were appointed to hear appeals at Westminster ; from 
these the modern Court of the King's Bench developed. 

Henry was interested mainly in his continental posses- 
sions, and of the thirty-five years of his reign he spent only 
Wh the kin - t^iirteen in England. Eichard I, who succeeded 
ship did not be- him, 1189-1199, was in England only ten 
come absolute, months in all. John's tyranny and misrule, 
1199-1216, alienated every one ; in addition, the loss of his 
continental possessions in 1204, the defeat at Bouvines in 

* From scutum, a shield. 



220 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

1214, and his troubles with the Pope, weakened him. His 
successor, Henry III, 1216-1272, was unable to govern the 
realm. Consequently, in spite of the energetic measures 
of Henry II, the English nobles and people had a long 
period in which to develop their strength, and when a really 
capable king, Edward I, 1272-1307, came to the throne, the 
nation had secured certain rights which the monarch was 
obliged to respect. 

These rights had been obtained mainly by the struggle 
for the charters. In 1215 the estrangement of the nation 
from John became so great that the barons 
gna ar a. ^^^ together, and, led by Stephen Langton, 
compelled the king to sign the Great Charter. This con- 
tained few, if any, new principles ; but was merely a state- 
ment of the rights formerly enjoyed by the subjects. Free- 
dom of election to church offices was confirmed ; feudal 
exactions were restricted ; courts were to be held at fixed 
times and places ; freemen were not to be imprisoned or 
punished except in accordance with the law of the land. 
John was forced to dismiss his mercenaries, and to consent 
to the appointment of a commission of twenty-five — twenty- 
four barons and the mayor of London — who should see that 
these provisions were observed. When the Pope annulled 
the charter and suspended Langton, the barons offered the 
crown to Louis, the son of the king of France. John's 
death saved the kingdom for his son, Henry III, whom the 
nobles preferred to a foreign ruler. 

For eleven years during Henry's youth the government 
was directed well by the king's ministers. But they had 
to struggle against the queen-mother's foreign 
Henry III.*^^ favorites, who received many appointments in 
England. From 1227 to 1258 Henry ruled in 
person, and aroused opposition from his subjects by his 
incapacity, by his preference for foreigners, and by his 
demands for money. In order to obtain funds he confirmed 
the charter repeatedly, but never kept his promises. In 



ENGLAND (1135-1327) 221 

1258, when Henry demanded an enormous sum of money 
for the Pope, the " Mad Parliament " met, headed by Simon 
de Montfort, brother-in-law to the king and the son of 
Montfort, the leader in the Albigensian crusade. This 
parliament drew up the Provisions of Oxford, which ordered 
the expulsion of all foreigners, and transferred the govern- 
ment from the king to the barons. Dissensions, however, 
soon arose among the latter, and the king was able to re- 
gain his authority for a time. As he did not observe the 
Provisions, Earl Simon took up arms against him ; after a 
few months a truce was made, but the war soon broke out 
again. Simon was slain in 1265, and his associates sur- 
rendered in the following year ; but in 1267 Henry was 
compelled to grant almost all the reforms which the " Mad 
Parliament '' had asked. 

In 1260 Simon had called together a parliament, to 
which, besides the clergy and the nobles who were of his 
party, representatives of the shires, and burgh- 
Growth of gpg from certain cities and boroughs, had 
been summoned. He took this step in order 
to gain support. At first this innovation bore little fruit, 
but in 1295, when Edward I needed the aid of all his sub- 
jects, he summoned the " Model Parliament." This con- 
sisted of tenants-in-chief, representatives of all classes of 
the clergy, knights of the shire, and two citizens from each 
city or borough. As Edward said in his summons, " What 
affects all should be approved by all." Thus the English 
Parliament was established in the form which it retained 
until the nineteentli century. Moreover, Edward was 
obliged, in 1297, to agree to the principle that no general 
contribution should be exacted from his vassals without the 
consent of Parliament. 

Edward I was able and energetic, a great contrast to his 
father and also to his son. His wars, his resistance to the 
demands of the Church, and his " Model Parliament," have 
been mentioned. In addition, he passed a long series of 



222 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

laws which diminished the power of the feudal nobles, and 

established order in the realm. The Assize of Arms was 

renewed ; the process of subinfeudation was 

Laws of restricted, thus preventing a multiplication of 

Edward I. „-,-,-,■ i • -• • 

leiidal duties; and investigation was made to 
see by what right nobles exercised their judicial and adminis- 
trative authority ; merchants were protected and commerce 
encouraged ; liberal charters were granted to towns, and 
Magna Charta was confirmed. In short, on the one hand, 
he restricted the authority of the barons; on the other, 
he fostered the welfare and prosperity of the merchants. 

Edward II was a weak king, and his reign lessened the 
royal authority which his father had done so much to 

establish. For a few years he governed by the 
Edward II, aid of his favorite Gaveston, who was hated by 
1307 1327. ii^Q people. In 1311 the barons wrested the 
power from Edward, and compelled him to dismiss his 
favorite. In the following year Gaveston returned, and 
was executed by the barons, who, except for a short period, 
kept the power until 1332. Then Edward recovered his 
authority, and ruled with his new favorites, the Despensers. 
In 1327 the queen, supported by the nation, compelled the 
king to abdicate, and put the Despensers to death. These 
twenty years of misrule enabled the barons, who were the 
leaders of the nation, to weaken the royal authority and 
assert the rights of the subjects. 

Thus the course of events in these centuries led to re- 
sults in England which differed widely from those attained 

in France. In the latter country the Capetians, 
Contrast with j^^ ^]-,g beginning of the twelfth century, had 

FrincG 

little authority and only a small territory un- 
der their immediate sway. At the beginning of the four- 
teenth the French kings ruled almost all of France with 
an absolute government. In England, on the contrary, at 
the opening of this period, the kings were absolute, and 
had enormous territories in France and England. In 1327 



ENGLAND (1135-1327) 223 

their French estates, with a few exceptions, had been lost, 
and their subjects had compelled them to recognize that 
the royal prerogatives were limited by the rights of the 

people. 

References 

Green: Hhtory of the English People, Book III. Stubbs: Plan- 
tageneU, chaps, vi-xi. Cheyney : Industrial and Social History of Eng- 
land, pp. 19-30. Gardiner: School History of England, pp. 165-171, 
185-231. Adams: Civilization During the Middle Ages, pp. 339-351. 
The Mag7ia Charta and other important documents can be found in 
Translations and Reprints, vol. i, No. 6; in Adams and Stephens: 
Select Documents of English Constitutional History (New York, 1901); 
and in other collections of sources. 



CHAPTER XX 
The Other European Nations 

Thus far Germany with Italy, France and England, 
have been the nations which have occupied the chief place 
in the discussion. Xow it is necessary to trace 
nation^s!^ the growth of the Christian states in the Span- 

ish peninsula, the destruction of the Byzantine 
Empire, and the rise of kingdoms in Russia and the Scan- 
dinavian countries. For all of these states were important 
in the thirteenth century, and were destined to be still 
more important in the future. 

The Moors had never conquered the whole of Spain. 
The Christians who refused to submit to them had estab- 
lished strongholds in the mountains of the 
Christian states ,i , t ,i • -, • -, 

in Spain. northwest, and, as they increased m number, 

had gradually reconquered one place after 
another. When the caliphate of Cordova broke up in 1033 
into seven kingdoms, the Christians held nearly one-third 
of the peninsula. Leon, Navarre, Castile, and Aragon were 
the most important Christian states. Their history for the 
succeeding one hundred and fifty years is marked by con- 
stant struggles with one another, and by almost incessant 
warfare with the Mohammedan powers. At first Xavarre, 
under Sancho the Great, 970-1035, was supreme ; but when 
Sancho died, his kingdom was divided among his sons, and 
Ferdinand I, who ruled over Castile and Leon, became the 
chief power among the Christians. 

Under Alfonso YI, who died in llOS, the great period 
of conquest began. Madrid and Toledo were captured. It 
834 



THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 225 

was during this reign that the Cid became famous. The 

latter's career is very instructive for the history of the 

period. At times he fought for his sovereign 

Wars with Alfonso ; when it served his purpose he allied 

the Moors. . • i , th- r r 

himself with the Moors, or entered into the 

service of the king of Aragon, who was the rival of Alfonso. 

He was a /soldier of fortune/ of recognized bravery and 

great ability; his alliance with the Moors and opj)osition 

to his monarch did not tarnish his fame, and he has become 

the legendary hero of Spain. 

In order to oppose' the Christian advance the Moors 

sought aid from Africa. The Almoravides entered Spain 

in 1086, and sixty years later were followed by 
andMmohades. the Almohades. They, in turn, became masters 

of Mohammedan Spain, but without checking 
permanently the advance of the Christians. Portugal, which 
was composed of lands conquered from the Moors, was made 
a kingdom shortly before the arrival of the Almohades, and 
Lisbon was taken in 1147. During this time many crusa- 
ders took part in the Spanish wars against the infidel ; but 
the most important source of strength was found in the 
military orders, especially that of Santiago, which were 
founded in the twelfth century. Under the influence of 
the crusading spirit the war in Spain took on the character 
of a religious war. Although the Christians were usually 
impeded by strife between the different kings, in 1212 the 
monarchs of Castile, Aragon, and Xavarre united and won 
the great victory of Las Xavas de Tolosa. This resulted 
in the permanent triumph of Christianity, and within fifty 
years the Moorish possessions were confined to the little 
kingdom of Granada. 

From that time until the marriage of Fer- 
£2°^ dinand and Isabella, in 1469, the Christians 

were so much occupied in wars with one an- 
other that they made no attempt to conquer Granada. Por- 
tugal became separated politically from the rest of the pen- 



THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 227 

insula. Navarre disintegrated ; the part to the north of the 
Pyrenees became French territory, the southern portion was 
annexed hy its more powerful neighbors. In 1474 Isabella 
became queen of Castile, and in 1479 Ferdinand became 
king of Aragon ; their united kingdoms composed almost 
all of Spain. In 1481 the final struggle with the Moors 
began, and ten years later the conquest of Granada was 
completed. 

The religious war, which may be called a perpetual cru- 
sade, had an important influence upon the internal develop- 
ment of Spain. The clergy became more influ- 
Kesultsof ential than in any other European country. 

wars. *' . 

A spirit of intolerance was aroused which led 
to the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition under Fer- 
dinand and Isabella, to the expulsion of the Jews in 1492, 
and later to the expulsion of the Moors. The people secured 
political rights in Spain much earlier than in any other 
European country. In 11.33 they obtained representation 
in the Cortes, or parliament, of Aragon, and in 1166 in that 
of Castile. The nobles also were very independent of the 
monarchs until the union of Castile and Aragon enabled 
Ferdinand and Isabella to establish their authority firmly 
at the expense of their subjects. The latter were powerless 
to resist, because the nobles and the people had always been 
disunited and opposed to each other. 

Alexius Comnenus, 1081-1118, reestablished the strength 
of the Byzantine Empire, and also secured some territory 

B zantine ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^® ^^^ ^^ ^^^® crusaders. But the 

Empire, establishment of the latter in Syria was a seri- 

1095 1204. Q^^g ]3|q^ ^q ^Yie prosperity of the Eastern Em- 
pire. The trade between the east and the west, which had 
formerly centered at Constantinople, was now diverted to 
the Syrian seaports. In order to retain at least a portion 
at Constantinople, special privileges were given to the 
Venetians and Pisans, who established trading colonies 
there. As they were exempted from taxation they were 



228 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

enabled to undersell the Greek merchants, and the state 
was deprived of almost all customs duties. The extrava- 
gance of Manuel I, 1143-1180, the brutality of Androni- 
cus I, 1183-1185, and the weakness, misrule, and lavish 
expenditure of Isaac Angelus, 1185-1195, brought the em- 
pire to the verge of ruin. 

The crusaders in 1204 had comparatively little difficulty 
in capturing Constantinople and in establishing the Latin 

Empire. But the feudal states into whicli the 
1204-12?L^' empire was divided had no unity, and the Greek 

subjects were hostile to their masters. Greek 
nobles established principalities in Asia Minor and in out- 
lying portions of the old empire. The Venetians, who had 
obtained the lion's share of the conquests, were the only 
western rulers who maintained their authority. One part 
after another of the Latin Empire was reconquered by 
Greek rulers until finally, in 1261, Constantinople itself fell 
into their hands. Some Latin nobles retained principalities 
for a generation or two, and the Venetians continued to 
hold the islands and parts of the coast. The emperors of 
Constantinople managed to keep their capital for nearly 

two hundred years of inglorious rule. This 
Empire, was duc partly to the strength of the city and 

1261 1453. partly to the lack of any continued effort by 
their opponents. Early in the fourteenth century the Otto- 
man Turks began their attacks upon the empire, and one 
city after another was wrested from its grasp. Finally, 
after all the territory outside the city had been occupied by 
the Turks, Constantinople fell into their hands in 1453. 

The early history of Russia is very obscure. Its Slavonic 
inhabitants were conquered in part by the Xorthmen under 

Rurik in the latter half of the ninth century. 

The foreign rulers maintained themselves at 
first by aid from the Scandinavian countries; then they 
turned to their subjects, the Slavs, for support. About 
the year 1000 the Christian religion was introduced by the 



/ 

THE OTHER^EUROPEAN NATIONS 229 

ruler and the people ,were brought under the civilizing in- 
fluence of the Byzantine Empire. For a time the country 
was united under an able ruler, churches were built in 
many places, trade was fostered, and Eussia seemed des- 
tined to be a great European power. But on the death of 
Jaroslav the Great, 1015-1044, his kingdom was split into 
many fragments which engaged in almost constant warfare 
with one another. This state of confusion lasted for two 
centuries. During the latter part of the period Russia was 
attacked on the west and northwest by the religious orders, 
the Knights of the Sword and the Teutonic order, who by 
their conquests shut it ofl from the Baltic and from Poland. 
In the first half of the thirteenth century the Tartars sub- 
jugated Russia, which became Asiatic rather than European, 
and for three centuries remained under their yoke. As it 
was cut off from Europe and from contact with the civiliza- 
tion which led to the Renaissance and Reformation, its 
history followed a course widely different from that of any 
other European counti-y. 

The invasions and conquests of the Northmen in the 
ninth and tenth centuries brought the Scandinavian coun- 
tries into connection with the rest of Europe, 
countrier^^'^ but the inhabitants who remained at home 
were much less advanced in civilization than 
their kinsmen, the Normans, who settled in England, 
France, or Italy. Christianity was introduced in the elev- 
enth century when Canute the Great, 1014-1035, was for 
a time king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. After his 
death separate kingdoms were formed and little advance 
was made until the thirteenth century, when the countries 
became thoroughly Christianized and profited by the grow- 
ing commerce in the Baltic Sea. In the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries they were engaged in conflict with the 
Hanseatic League. For a short period at the beginning of 
the latter century the three countries were again united ; 
for Margaret, who chanced to secure all three crowns, pcr- 
IG 




Wooden Dook of Church in Iceland. 
(Tenth or eleventh cent>iry. ) 



THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 231 

suaded the nobles to agree to the Union of Kalmar in 
1397. Soon, however, the countries again separated. 
Their importance in the middle ages was due to their voy- 
ages and colonization. In addition to their conquest in 
England and on the continent, the Xorwegians settled Ice- 
land, which was soon a flourishing although little developed 
state, and made voyages to North America centuries before 
the discovery by Columbus. 

In order to make a complete survey of Europe in the 
thirteenth century, it would be necessary to follow the 

fortunes of the Finns and Slavs, as well as the 
Other nationsi , . mi j_ • j. j. 

stronger nations. The most important repre- 
sentatives of the Finns were the Hungarians or Magyars. 
They invaded Europe in the ninth century as nomads, and 
by their devastations terrorized Germany and Italy. De- 
feated by Otto the Great on the Lechfeld in 955, they 
ceased their depredations for a time. Under St. Stephen, 
995-1038, they were converted to Christianity, and under 
his successors conquered all of the present Hungary. They 
still retained their nomadic habits in the twelfth century, 
rarely dwelling in houses. In 1323 the nobles secured 
from the king the Golden Bull, which guaranteed their 
privileges and in some points resembled Magna Charta; 
but the people obtained no rights, and were held in bond- 
age by the nobles. Besides the Eussian Slavs, other Slavs 
settled in Bohemia and Poland. The former country came 
under the German influence ; the king of Bohemia in the 
thirteenth century became one of the seven imperial elec- 
tors, and his capital was for a time the residence of the 
emperor. Poland was the scene of almost continuous civil 
war, in which the nobility destroyed the power of the king, 
only to fall into a state of anarchy. 

AVith the close of the thirteenth century, or the begin- 
ning of the fourteenth, the medieval period ended in the 
most progressive countries. In the others, medieval con- 
ditions continued to prevail for a longer or a shorter 



232 MEDIEVAL HISTORY 

time. The fourteenth century is of far less interest than 
the thirteenth, for, although substantial progress was made, 

it was due mainly to the diffusion of the ideas 
^^hhV^*^^ and activities which had their birth in an 

earlier age. Some writers have characterized 
the tAvo periods by saying that after the wonderful advance 
of the thirteenth century the nations " marked time " dur- 
ing the fourteenth. Certainly the conditions and forces 
which had determined the course of events in the middle 
ages were replaced to a considerable extent by other inter- 
ests at the close of this period. The more important mod- 
ern nations of Europe were well established, and Christian- 
ity was the dominant religion. The medieval empire had 
lost its power, and with it departed the dream of a world- 
wide Christian state. The papacy was soon to undergo 
a captivity at Avignon, from which it would emerge with 
views and powers widely different from those held by In- 
nocent III. Feudal institutions were declining rapidly, 
and the men of the third estate were rising into promi- 
nence. The Eenaissance was soon to dawn. Europe was 
on the verge of geographical discoveries which would re- 
veal a far larger world, and would culminate at the end of 
the fifteenth century with the rounding of the Cape of 
Good Ho^ie and the discovery of America ; gunpowder was 
to revolutionize the art of war, and the printing-press was 
destined to diffuse a greater degree of general intelligence. 
Master minds, like Roger Bacon and Dante, who has been 
well styled the Janus-faced, illustrate the character of the 
age, although they were far in advance of their contempo- 
raries. In most respects, they were thoroughly medieval 
in all their education and thoughts ; but occasionally they 
had intuitions and wrote passages instinct with the modern 
spirit. 



THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS 233 

Reperehces 

For Spain, Tout: Empire and Papacy, chap, xx, and Lodge: 
Close of the Middle Ages, chaji. xx. For the Byzantine Empire, 
Tout: chap, xv, and Lodge, chap. xxi. For Russia, Rambaud: 
History of liussia, chaps, iv, v, x. MorfiU: Russia (New York, 1900), 
chaps, ii, iii, iv. For the thirteenth century in general, Harrison : 
Meaning of History, chap. v. 



INDEX 



Abbassides, dynasty of, 86, 87, 94. 
Abbot. 16, 27. 
Abelard, 163, 164. 
Acre, 113, 115, 117. 
Adrian IV, 189, 190, 215. 
Agnes of Meran. 210-211. 
Agriculture, in Arab Spain, 89 ; on 

manor, 151-152. 
Aids, feudal, 48. 
Albigenses, 176-177. 
Albigensian crusade, 177-178, 206, 

210. 
Alchemy, 91, 93. 
Alcuin, 10. 
Alemanni, 51. 
Alexander III, 190. 
Alexius Comnenus, 103-104, 106- 

107, 110, 227. 
Alfonso VI, 224, 225. 
Alfonso X, 198, 199. 
Alfred the Great, 75-78. 
Algebra, 91, 92. 
Allodial property, 42. 
Almohades, 176, 225. 
Alraoravides, 225. 
Andalusia, 87. 
Andronicus I, 228. 
Angelus, prayer, 155. 
Angevin kings, 215. 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 75, 76, 78, 

79. 
Anglo-Saxons, 74-81. 



Anjou, 214. 

Antioch, 110, 111. 

Antisacerdotalists, 175. 

Aquitaine, 64, 207-208, 214. 

Arabian Nights, 87, 88. 

Arabic figures, 91. 

Arabs, early, 5 ; civilization, 87-92 ; 
invasions, 101. See Mohamme- 
dans. 

Aragon. 197, 224, 225, 227. 

Architecture, Mohammedan, 91- 
92. 

Aristotle, 90. 

Army, Carolingian, 15 ; feudal. 47; 
Byzantine, 100. 

Arnold of Brescia, 189. 

Arthur of Brittany, 210. 

Asia Minor, 93, 94, 97, 101, 103, 
109, 110. 

Assizes, 219, 222. 

Athelney, 76. 

Athelstan. 78-79. 

Aucassifi and Nicohtte. 144, 147. 

Augustine, St., rule, 133. 

Augustinian. or Austin Canons, 
133. 

Austria, 199. 

Bagdad. 87-88. 90. 
Baldwin, 110. 111. 
Rallio], 216. 
Bannockburn, 216. 

235 



236 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Barbarossa, 197. See Frederick I. 

Basil II, 102. 

Bavaria, 191. 

Bavarians, 51. 

Bayard, 142. 

Bayeux tapestry, 140. 

Bec-ket, Thomas, 208, 217. 

Bede. 78. 

Benedict of Nursia, 122, 123. 

Benefice, 41, 42. 

Beneficia, 189. 

Berbers, 92. See Moors, 

Bernard of Clair vaux, 128, 129- 

131, 132, 186. 
Boethius, 78. 
Bohemia, 56, 191, 231. 
Bohemians, 52. 
Bohemond, 109, 110. 
Bologna University, 165, 167. 
Boniface VIII, 218. 
Bouvines, 194. 211. 
Brittany, 64, 67. 
Bruce. Robert, 216. 
Brunanburh, 79. 
Bruno of Cologne, 52. 
Bnfno, founder of Carthusians, 

126, 128. 
Brunswick. 191. 
Bulgaria, 109. 
Bulgarians. 6. 101-102. 
Burgundy, 56. 61, 191. 
Byzantine emperors, table, 104- 

105. 
Byzantine Empire. 95-105, 227- 

228, 229 : services, 96-97. 

Caliph of Bagdad. 5. 6, 86-87, 92- 
94; of Cordova, 87; three ca- 
liphs, 93. 

Calixtus II, 61. 

Camaldoli. 126. 

Canon law, 175. 



Canons Regular, 133-134. 

Canossa, 60. 

Canute, 80-81, 229. 

Capetian kings, 67-72, 204-205, 
206, 222. 

Cardinals, 170. 

Carolingians, 4, 51, 66-68 ; weak- 
ness of later, 33 ; genealogical 
table, 24. 

Carthusians, 126, 128. 

Castile, 224, 225, 227. 

Castles, 38, 135-139; plan, 136; 
situation, 137; walls and gate, 
137 ; moat, 137 ; drawbridge, 137 ; 
portcullis, 137; donjon and keep, 
138. 

Cathari, 176. 

Celtic language, 74. 

Chapters, cathedral and Collegi- 
ate. 133. 

Charles Martel, 6. 

Charles the Bald, 19, 20, 21, 64-65. 

Charles the Fat, 65, 66. 

Charles the Great, 4, 9-16, 28, 75, 
161. 187. 

Charles the Simple, 52, 65, 66, 67, 
79. 

Charles of Anjou. 197. 

Charles IV of Germany, 198. 

Charter-house, Chartreuse, 128. 

Chess, 143. 

Children's crusade, 116-117. 

Chivalry. 141-143. 

Church, councils, 2 ; organization, 
2; importance in shaping civil- 
ization, 4; connection with 
Franks, 4, 11; medieval concep- 
tion of, 25 ; duties, 25 ; jurisdic- 
tion, 28-29, 173-175; means of 
control, 30-31: influence, 4, 31- 
32; feudalism, 46-47; condition, 
eleventh century, 57-59 ; wealth, 



INDEX 



237 



4, 11, 16, 58, 120, 132; twelfth 
and thirteenth centuries, 169- 
181. See Pope, etc. 

Church and state, 172-173. See 
Investiture struggle. 

Cid, 225. 

Cistercians, 129-130, 132. 

City, definition, 153. 

Clairvaux, 130. 

Clarendon, constitutions of, 217. 

Clermont, council of, 107, 108. 

Cluny, 122, 123-126, 129, 161 ; con- 
gregation, 124. 

Colleges, 166-167. 

Commendation, 41. 

Commerce, Mohammedan, 90; Syr- 
ian, 111, 113; during crusades, 
119; twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries, 155-156 ; Constanti- 
nople, 227-228. 

Commune. 157. 

Condottieri, 147. ' 

Conrad I of Germany, 51 ; II, 55, 
56: III, 113, 131, 185, 186; IV, 
196, 197, 198. 

Conradin, 197. 

Constantinople, description, 95-98 ; 
siege in 717, 6; in 1204, 116; 
Northmen at, 37 ; fall, 228 : Latin 
empire, 116, 228. 

Cordova, caliphate. 224; emirate, 87. 

Cortenuova, 196. 

Cortes. 227. 

Counts, 15. 

Court-fools, 143. 

Crusades, 106-121 : first. 109-111 ; 
second, 113; third. 115; fourth, 
115-116; children's, 116: Fred- 
erick I, 193; Frederick II, 195; 
Spanish, 227: results, 118-121: 
influence on monasticism, 128. 

Curfew. 155. 



Daraietta, 113. 

Danegeld, 80. 

Danelaw, 76. 

Danes, 34, 52, 75-80, 106. 

Dante, 196, 197, 232. 

" Dark Ages," 160-161. 

David, king of Scotland, 216. 

Decrehmi, 126, 175. 

Denmark, 202, 210, 211. 

Despensers, 222. 

Dialectics, 161, 162. 

Dispensations, 171. 

Doctors, Arab, 89, 91, 113. 

Domain land, 149; royal, 65. 

Domesday Book, 83. 

Dominic, St., 178-179. 

Dominicans, 178-180. 

Donations of Pippin and Charles, 4. 

Earls, created by Canute, 81. 

Ecclesiastical courts, 173-175. 

Edessa, 110, 111, 113. 

Edgar, 80. 

Edmund, 78. 

Edred, 78. 

Education, at Cluny, 123 ; among 

Cistercians, 129 ; Charles the 

Great's interest, 10 ; schools and 

universities, 160-168. 
Edward the Confessor, 80-82. 
Edward the Unconquered, 78. 
Edward I of England, 183, 215, 

216, 218, 220, 221-222 ; II, 215, 

216, 222. 
Egbert, 75. 

Einhard, 9, 12. 17, 23. 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 207-208, 

214. 
Electoral college, 198. 
Emma. 80. 81. 
Hngland, history to 1135. 74-85; 

to 1327. 214-223. 



238 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Estate, the Third, 159, 184, 305, 

213. 
Ethelred, 80, 81. 
Eudes, 66. 
Excoininunication, 30 ; Henry IV, 

60 ; Frederick II, 196. 

Fairs, 156. 

Falkirk, 316. 

Family names, 130-131. 

Fealty, 47. 

Ferdinand I, 234 ; Ferdinand and 
Isabella, 335. 227. 

Feudalism, 40-50 : in England, 82- 
83 ; group in, 45. 

Fief, 41, 42-45, 120. 

Finns, 331. 

" Fist-law," 197, 198. 

Flanders, cities, 68-69. 

Fontenay, 19. 

France, history to 1108, 64-73; to 
1314, 304-313. 

Francis of Assisi, 179. 

Franciscans, 178-180. 

Franconia, 51. 

Franks, German tribe, 4 ; exhaus- 
tion, 17; name for western men, 
111-115, 117. 

Frederick I, Bai'barossa, of Ger- 
many, 115, 187-193; II, 117, 178, 
193-197, 311; of Swabia, 185- 
186. 

Freemen, 149, 151. 

Fusion of Romans and Germans, 3. 

Gaveston, 232. 

Germans, migrations, 3 ; contribu- 
tions to civilization, 3 ; principle 
of division, 18. 

Germany, history to 1138, 51-62: 
later history, 184-202 : connec- 
tion with Italy, 185 ; kings, 62. 



Ghibellines, 186, 187. 

Gilds, 157. 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 109, 110, 111. 

Godwm, 81, 82. 

Golden Bull, Germany, 198; Hun- 
gary, 331. 

Grammar, 163. 

Grammont, 136. 

Granada, 183, 225, 227. 

Gratian, 126, 175. 

Greek-fire, 100. 

Gregory the Great, 78. 

Gregory VII, 59-61, 106, 131, 170, 
172,316; IX, 195-196. 

Grosseteste, Robert, 318. 

Guelfs. 185, 186, 187, 191, 193, 303. 

Hamburg, 201, 203. 

Hanse, 301, 303. 

Hanseatic League, 183, 201-202, 
229. 

Hapsburgs, 199, 301. 

Harold, 83. 

Haroun al-Raschid, 87. 

Hastings, 83. 

Henry I of England. 84, 130, 314, 
217; II, 208, 214, 215, 216, 217, 
218, 219, 220: III, 211, 318. 330- 
321. 

Henry I of France, 71. 

Henry I of Germany, 51 : II, 55- 
56; III, 56, 71; IV, 56-61: V, 
61, 185, 186; VI, 193,210. 

Henry of Bavaria, 186. 

Henry the Lion, 191-192, 193. 

Heraldic devices, 120. 

Hereditary succession, in France, 
70 : in Germany, 186 ; in Byzan- 
tine Empire, 98. 

Heresies, 175-177. 

Ilildebrand, 59, 126. See Gregory 
VII. 



INDEX 



239 



Hohenstautens, 130, 185-197, 203 ; 

policy, 183, 195, 197. 
HohenzoUern, 202. 
Holy Land, 108, 109, 113, 114. 
Holy Roman Empire, 187. 
Homage, 47. 
Honorius, 194-195. 
Hospitallers, 114. 
Hugh Capet, 67, 69. 
Hugh, Duke of France, 66-67, 79. 
Hundreds, 81. 
Hungarians, 34, 51, 52, 54, 102, 

231. 
Hungary, 56, 109, 231. 

Iceland, 231. 

Immunity, 41, 44-4.5. 

Ingeborg, 210-211. 

Innocent II, 130; III, 177, 193- 
194,218; IV, 196. 

Inquisition, 178; Spanish, 227. 

Interdict, 31; on France, 210; on 
England, 218. 

Investiture struggle, 59-62, 107, 
124, 185. 

Ireland, 215. 

Irene, 12. 

Isaac Angelas, 228. 

Isabella, 225, 227. 

Islam, 5. See Arabs, Moors, Mo- 
hammedans. 

Italians in Syria, 114. 

Italy, 54-55. 56, 61. 64, 103, 187- 
191, 195-197. 

Jaroslav, 229. 

Jerusalem, city, 108, 110, 111. 115. 

116; kingdom, 111-115, 117. 
John, king of England, 194, 208. 

210, 21t 218, 219-220. 
Jongleurs, 144. 
Jousts, 144. 



Judith, wife of Lewis the Pious, 
19. 

Kalmar, union of, 231. 

King's Bench, court, 219. 

Kings of England, table, 85 ; 
France, 73 ; Jerusalem, 121. 

Knights, occupations, 139 ; educa- 
tion, 140-141; duties, 142; 
amusements, 143-146; prodigal- 
ity, 146. 

Knights of the Sword, 229. 

Koran, 5, 91. 

Langton, Stephen, 218, 220. 

Languedoc, 177, 182, 210. 

Largesse, 146. 

Las Navas de Tolosa, 225. 

Latin Empire, Constantinople, 228. 

Lay investiture, 59-62. 

Learning of Arabs, 90-92 ; at Con- 
stantinople, 96. 

Lech, 54, 102, 231. 

Legnano, 190. 

Lendit, 156. 

Leon, 224. 

Lewis, the German, 19, 20, 23, 65 ; 
the Pious, 18-19. See Louis. 

Libraries in Arab Spain, 90. 

Life of nobles, 135-147; of peo- 
ple, 148-159; in towns, 154-155; 
of students, 167-168. 

Llewellyn, 215. 

Lombard cities, 189-191, 193. 

Lombard League, 190, 191, 196. 

Lombards, 4, 11. 

Lorraine, 52, 64, 71. 

Tjothair. emperor, 130, 185-186. 

Lothair. son of Lewis the Pious, 
18, 19. 20, 21, 23. 

Louis d'Outrcmer. 66-67 ; the 
Stammerer, 65, 66. 



240 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Louis VI of France. 130, 205, 207 ; 
VII, 113, 205, 207-208; VIII, 
177, 205, 211, 220; IX, 113, 117. 
205, 211-212. 

Lubeck, 191, 201, 202. 

Liineburg, 191. 

Macedonian dynasty, 98, 101, 103, 
104-105. 

Mad Parliament, 221. 

Magna Charta, 211, 220, 222. 

Magyars. See Hungarians. 

Majorca, 89. 

Malta, Knights of, 114. 

Manichcans, 175-177. 
'Manor, 149-150. 

Manuel I, 228. 

Manufactures, Arab, 89. 

Manzikert, 94, 103. 

Margaret of Denmark, 229, 231; 
of Scotland, 216. 

Margrave, title, 15 ; of Bi'anden- 
burg, 198, 202. 

Matilda of England, 214, 217. 

Mercia. 75, 76. 

Merovingians, 4. 

Mersen, capitulary, 38, 65. 

Migrations, German, 2 ; student. 
164-165. 

Milan, 190. 

Minorites, 179. 

Missi dominici, 16, 17, 27. 

Model Parliament, 221. 

Mohammed, 5, 8G. 

Mohammedans, 5, 6, 86. Ill, 113- 
114, 117. See Arabs. 

Monasteries, services, 27-28 ; in- 
crease, 122; orders, 122-134; in 
France, 126-128. See Cluny. 

Money, use during the crusades. 120. 

Monks, 27, 122-134. See Monas- 
teries. 



Moors, 6, 107. 224. 

Moslems, 114. See Mohammedans. 

xAIosul, 92, 113. 

Naples, kingdom, 197 ; university, 

194. 
Navarre, 224. 225. 227. 
NiciBa, 109-110. 
Nicephorus I, 101. 
Norbert, 133. 
Norman conquest, 82-84. 
Normandy, 67-68, 206, 208, 210, 

214 ; connection with England, 

80, 84. 
Normans. 37, 103, 114, 189. 
Northmen, 34-37, 65, 66, 68, 102, 

228. 
Northumbria, 75, 76. 

Offa, 75. 

Ommiads, 86, 93. 

Orosius, 78. 

Otto I, 51-55, 67, 79, 231 ; II, 55 ; 

III, 55; IV, 193-194, 211. 
Ottoman Turks. 183, 228. 
Oxford, 167 ; provisions of, 221. 

Pages, 141. 

Papal States, 4, 197. 

Paris, siege, 66 : university, 162- 
167. 

Parliament, 221. 

Patarins, 176. 

Patriarchs, 2. 

Patzinaks, 104. 

Peace of God, 139-140. 

Peasants, 149-153. 

Penance, 30. 

Peter Damiani, 126. 

Peter the Hermit, 108-109, 131. 

Philip I of France, 72; II, Augus- 
tus, 115, 177, 194, 205, 208-211, 
212 ; IV, the Fair, 212-213. 



INDEX 



241 



Philip 11 of Germany, 193. 

Piacenza, council, 107. 

Pippin, 4, 18. 

Plantagenets, 120. 

Podestd, 190. 

Poland, 56, 231. 

Poles, 52. 

Poor Men of Lyons, 175. 

Popes, power, 107, 124, 169-173; 

election, 169-170; tables, 63-63, 

180-181. See Church. 
Portugal, 225. 
Preaching friars, 179. 
Prebends, 133. 

Premonsti'atensians, 133-134. 
Prince of Wales, 215. 
Priors, 124. 

Privileges of students, 163-165. 
Prussia, 202. 

Quadrivium, 161-163. 
Quvntaine, 142. 

Regular clergy, definition, 27. 

Relief, 48-49. ' 

Representative assemblies, 3. 

Richard, of Cornwall, 198; the 
Lion-hearted, 115, 193, 208, 210, 
216, 219. 

Robert, the Strong, 66 ; II, 71. 

Robertian family, 66. 

Roger Bacon, 233. 

Roland, 144. . 

Rollo, 37, 67-68. 

Roman contribution to civiliza- 
tion, 3. 

Roman Empire, prestige. 13; of the 
German nation, 55, 187. 

Roman world, unity, 1. 

Romuald, 136. 

Roncalian diet. 189. 

Rudolf of Hapsburg. 199. 



Rurik, 102, 238. 

Russia, 103, 183, 228-239. 

Ruthli, oath, 301. 

Sagas, 36. 

St. Briee's day, 80. 

St. John, Knights of, 114. 

Saladiu, 115. 

Sancho the Great, 324. 

Santiago, order, 225. 

Saracens, 33-34, 55. 

Sardinia, 93, 196. 

Saxons, 13, 51, 59. 

Saxony, 56, 57. 59, 191. 

Scandinavia, 34, 239, 231. 

Schools, 3, 160-162. 

Scotland, 210. 

Scutage, 219. 

Secular clergy, definition, 27. 

Seljuks, 93-94. 

Sempack, 201. 

Senlac, 82. 

Septimania, 64. 

Serfs, 46, 149-153 ; emancipation, 

153. 
"Seven liberal arts," 161-163. 
Shire-reeve, 81. 
Sicily, 93, 101, 191, 193, 194, 195, 

196, 197, 199. 
Simeon, 103. 
Simon de Montfort. elder. 177: 

son, 331. 
Simony, 57-59, 134. 
Slaves, 149. 

Slavs, 34. 53. 101, 302. 238. 331. 
Spain, 87. 88-91, 107. 324-227. 
Spices. 119. 
Squires. 141. 
States-General, 212-213. 
Stephen, of England. 314, 317; of 

Hungary, 136, 331. 
Strassburg, oath, 20. 



242 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY 



Studium, 163-165. 

Subinfeudation, 4:3. 

Suger, 207. 

Suzerain, 45. 

Swabians, 51. 

Swegen, 80. 

Swiss Confederation, 183, 199-201. 

Tapestries, 140, 
Tartars, 229. 
Templars, 114, 131. 
Teutonic order, 182, 202, 229. 
Thane, 76. 
Thanet, 75. 
Themes, 98. 

Thomas Becket, 208, 217. 
Toulouse, 177-178, 206. 
Touraine, 214. 
Tournaments, 144-14G. 
Tours, battle near, 6. 
Towns and cities, 153-158. 
Tripoli, 111. 
Trivium, 161-162. 
Troubadours, 143. 
Truce of God, 134-140. 174. 
Tunis, 117. 

Turks, 93-94, 103, 104. 107. 116. 
117, 183, 228. 

Universities, 163-168; organiza- 
tion, 165; curriculum, 166. 
Urban II, 107-108, 131. 



Varangian guard, 106. 
Vassal, 41-44, 46-48. 
Venetians, 115-116, 227, 228. 
Verdun, treaty, 21, 51, 64. 
Vikings, 35-37. 
Villages, 149. 

Villefrcmche, 154. 

Villein, 46 ; tenure, 48. See Serfs. 

Villeneuve, 154. 

Waiblingen, 186. 

Waldenses, 175. 

Wales, 75, 215. 

Wallace, 216. 

Wallingford, peace, 214. 

Wardship, 49. 

Wed more, peace, 37, 76. 

Wessex, 75-79. 

William, the Conqueror, 71, 82-84, 

135, 216, 219; Rufus, 84, 107, 

216. 
William Tell, 201. 
Windmills, 118. 
Witenagemot, 81, 82. 
Wittelsbach, 191. 
Words from Arabic, 92. 
Worms, concordat. 61, 217. 

Zangi, 113. 
Zara, 115-116. 



(1) 



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